用NOAA/AVHRR探测地表反射率和NDVI的订正及误差分析

NOAA/ AVHRR反射率和标准化差值植被指数 (NDVI) 资料在气象、水文等领域都有广泛的应用。但因为地表双向反射和大气对可见光和近红外辐射的影响, 即使在地表没有变化的情况下, 卫星探测到的反射率和NDVI也有很大的变化。在除云处理和NOAA-14/AVHRR衰减校准的基础上, 利用6S模式对NOAA-14/AVHRR可见光和近红外反射率及NDVI资料进行了大气订正, 并利用Roujean和Rahman模式在大气订正后进行了双向反射订正。大气订正使可见光反射率减小3.34(反射率单位), 近红外反射率增加3.43(反射率单位), NDVI增加了0.22, 分别占各自平均值的78.2%, 15.9%, 35.5%。双向反射订正对NDVI的绝对值影响不大, 但消除了反射率和NDVI的不规则变化, 订正后能够较好地反映森林植被的物候效应。对各订正参数进行了误差分析, 结果表明订正对太阳和卫星天顶角的误差最敏感。     

长江三角洲地区表月平均反照率的卫星遥感研究

应用NOAA－AVHRR气象卫星数据，通过近似的大气校正模型及双向反射模型，结合地理信息系统，建立了动态的反照率反演模型，并反演了计算我国长江三角洲地区1995年3－12月的地表反照率。通过对诸影响反照率变化因子的分析显示，遥感反演结果与地表覆盖特征及气候特征基本相符。     

中国地表月平均反照率的遥感反演

地表特征和下垫面物理性质在时空分布上的差异 ,造成地表能量分布的不均 ,地球表面的半球反射在气候领域是一个非常重要的参数 ,它在地 气能量交换中决定着能量在地 气之间的分配比率。反照率随地表覆盖类型的变化具有很大的差异 ,而这往往是形成区域小气候差异的原因。文中通过统计和双向反射模型 ,应用NOAA14 AVHRR数据并结合地理信息系统 ,反演计算了 1997年中国月平均反照率的分布 ,并对结果做了分析检验。     

海洋-大气耦合辐射传输模式

本文在已有的DISORT大气辐射传输模式基础上，耦合进一个海洋反射模式，在海洋反射模式部分，考虑了风生海表毛细波对海表双向反射的作用以及海洋中叶绿素、悬浮物、溶解有机物对海洋反射光谱的影响，同时，为应用方便，为此模式配套了完整的大气温、压、湿、微量气体、气溶胶及太阳地外谱数据集；此海洋反射模式和海洋-大气耦合辐射传输模式已与1995年9月5日黄海海面反射光谱的实测资料和飞行实验中的光谱仪测量数据进行了对比验证，模拟结果与实测数据基本上符合。     

长江三角洲地区地表月平均反照率的卫星遥感研究

应用NOAA-AVHRR气象卫星数据,通过近似的大气校正模型及双向反射模型,结合地理信息系统,建立了动态的反照率反演模型,并反演计算了我国长江三角洲地区1995年3～12月的地表反照率.通过对诸多影响反照率变化因子的分析显示,遥感反演结果与地表覆盖特征及气候特征基本相符.     

对地球系统模式与综合评估模型双向耦合问题的探讨

概述了地球系统模式和综合评估模型在研究人类活动与气候变化问题上的优势和劣势,明确了将二者进行双向耦合的必要性,客观分析了综合评估模型耦合过程中存在的主要问题,同时系统总结了国际和国内解决耦合难点的主要方法和最新进展,最后分析和讨论了双向耦合模式的不确定性来源和解决方法,为我国进行地球系统模式与综合评估模型双向耦合提供新思路和方法。     

全球植被分布对气候影响的数值试验

利用一个新的陆－气双向耦合模式R42_AVIM, 通过有无植被覆盖的对比试验分析, 探讨了全球植被分布对气候和大气环流产生的潜在影响。得出: 陆面植被覆盖使得地表特征参数发生行星尺度的明显改变, 在叶面积指数大的热带和中高纬度森林带尤其显著。在现实植被分布下, 陆地表面反照率减小, 地表净辐射收支和地表潜热通量增加, 而地表感热通量减小。植被叶面积指数比较大的区域地表温度降低, 并且这种温度的改变一直延伸到对流层中上层, 在热带表现为斜压结构, 而在中高纬表现为相当正压结构。植被的存在使热带和中高纬度森林带的蒸发和相应的高层凝结潜热加热增强, 从而增强了经圈环流的上升支, 使得冬季在热带和南半球中纬度降水增多, 夏季在热带和北半球中高纬地区降水明显增多; 而经圈环流下沉支的增强致使副热带降水减少且更干旱。同时, 植被的存在使大陆潜热释放增强, 气温下降, 减小了海陆温度对比, 亚洲夏季风也有所减弱。     

漓江最高水位的分析及预测

通过对漓江水位的分布特征分析得出:漓江水位不仅与降水量、降水强度、降水时空分布有关系,还与前期旱涝情况及蓄水程度有关;漓江水位的年际变化与桂林市雨量的年际变化一致,大致以10a为周期。然后采用双向差分建立了最高水位的预测模型,以预报量的前差和后差预报误差之和趋于最小时求出模型的参数,并对2002~2005年的最高水位进行了预报,结果表明该模型在最高水位预测中具有较好的应用价值。     

漓江最高水位的分析及预测

通过对漓江水位的分布特征分析得出：漓江水位不仅与降水量、降水强度、降水时空分布有关系，还与前期早涝情况及蓄水程度有关；漓江水位的年际变化与桂林市雨量的年际变化一致，大致以10a为周期。然后采用双向差分建立了最高水位的预测模型，以预报量的前差和后差预报误差之和趋于最小时求出模型的参数，并对2002～2005年的最高水位进行了预报，结果表明该模型在最高水位预测中具有较好的应用价值。     

多角度高光谱对光化学反射植被指数估算光能利用率的影响探究

由于光能利用率(Light Use Efficiency,LUE)随环境的变化关系十分复杂,现有的LUE估算植被初级生产力(GPP)和净初级生产力(NPP)的模型过于粗糙简单,而通过遥感直接估计LUE会更加可靠。研究表明,光化学反射植被指数(PRI)与LUE有很好的相关性,故PRI在利用遥感估计LUE方面具有极大的潜力。但是,很多研究也发现了PRI-LUE的关系受到许多因素的干扰。为了探究多角度高光谱对光化学反射植被指数估算光能利用率的影响,分析了各观测日的光化学反射植被指数变化情况及其与实测光能利用率的关系。结果表明:在主平面的4个观测日都表现出后向的PRI值大于前向的PRI值,均表现出当光谱仪探头从后向散射方向向着前向散射方向变化时,PRI值逐渐变小然后随着天顶角的变大而变大;在光合作用的外部条件和内部环境不受影响的情况下,PROSAIL模型在主平面前向散射方向的中等角度(45 °和60 °)与后向散射方向的小角度(-15 °和-30 °)可以较好模拟出单一植被覆盖条件下水稻冠层植被的反射光谱。      

Surface Albedo in Cities: Case Study in Sapporo and Tokyo,Japan

The surface albedo of two large cities in Japan was measured using a pyranometer mounted on a helicopter to avoid the bidirectional reflectance distribution. The daytime albedo was 0.12 in the cities, which was less than that of a nearby forest (0.16). The albedo was dependent on building structure in the cities; the albedo was lower in areas with more buildings, and decreased as the aspect ratio of street canyons increased. There are two reasons for this dependency: the multiple reflection of radiation in the building canopy, as has been shown in many previous studies, and the sparse vegetation in urban areas. These two factors concurrently determine the albedo in a real city, where the vegetation amount decreases as the plan roof ratio increases.     

陆面生态过程的一维数值模拟

建立了一个研究大气、植被、土壤相互作用的传播模式。模式是由多层大气模式、多层土壤模式和植被模式通过界面上能量、水汽传输平衡方程耦合而成。对植被和土壤的不同性质,进行了一系列的数值试验。结果表明,不同的植被覆盖以及降水等因子会对大气、植被、地表界面上能量、水汽传输以及热状态产生显著的影响。此模式还可以耦合进中尺度模式用以研究非均匀区域陆面过程和大气的相互作用。     

Decadal variability of rainfall in the Sahel: results from the coupled GENESIS-IBIS atmosphere-biosphere model

In this study we investigate the impact of large-scale oceanic forcing and local vegetation feedback on the variability of the Sahel rainfall using a global biosphere-atmosphere model, the coupled GENESIS-IBIS model, running at two different resolutions. The observed global sea surface temperature in the twentieth century is used as the primary model forcing. Using this coupled global model, we experiment on treating vegetation as a static boundary condition and as a dynamic component of the Earth climate system. When vegetation is dynamic, the R30-resolution model realistically reproduces the multi-decadal scale fluctuation of rainfall in the Sahel region; keeping vegetation static in the same model results in a rainfall regime characterized by fluctuations at much shorter time scales, indicating that vegetation dynamics act as a mechanism for persistence of the regional climate. Even when vegetation dynamics is included, the R15 model fails to capture the main characteristics of the long-term rainfall variability due to the exaggerated atmospheric internal variability in the coarse resolution model. Regardless how vegetation is treated and what model resolution is used, conditions in the last three decades of the twentieth century are always drier than normal in the Sahel, suggesting that global oceanic forcing during that period favors the occurrence of a drought. Vegetation dynamics is found to enhance the severity of this drought. However, with both the observed global SST forcing and feedback from dynamic vegetation in the model, the simulated drought is still not as persistent as that observed. This indicates that anthropogenic land cover changes, a mechanism missing in the model, may have contributed to the occurrence of the twentieth century drought in the Sahel.     

Impact of global warming on the geobotanic zones: an experiment with a statistical�Cdynamical climate model

In this study, a zonally-averaged statistical climate model (SDM) is used to investigate the impact of global warming on the distribution of the geobotanic zones over the globe. The model includes a parameterization of the biogeophysical feedback mechanism that links the state of surface to the atmosphere (a bidirectional interaction between vegetation and climate). In the control experiment (simulation of the present-day climate) the geobotanic state is well simulated by the model, so that the distribution of the geobotanic zones over the globe shows a very good agreement with the observed ones. The impact of global warming on the distribution of the geobotanic zones is investigated considering the increase of CO₂ concentration for the B1, A2 and A1FI scenarios. The results showed that the geobotanic zones over the entire earth can be modified in future due to global warming. Expansion of subtropical desert and semi-desert zones in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, retreat of glaciers and sea-ice, with the Arctic region being particularly affected and a reduction of the tropical rainforest and boreal forest can occur due to the increase of the greenhouse gases concentration. The effects were more pronounced in the A1FI and A2 scenarios compared with the B1 scenario. The SDM results confirm IPCC AR4 projections of future climate and are consistent with simulations of more complex GCMs, reinforcing the necessity of the mitigation of climate change associated to global warming.     

IAP大气-植被耦合模式的建立及其模拟

为了充分理解气候与植被之间在不同时间尺度上的反馈作用,需要把动态植被模式耦合到气候模式里.本研究通过引进动态植被模式VEGAS(VEgetation-Global Atmosphere-Soil),在中国科学院大气物理研究所9层(IAP9L)气候模式的基础上,初步建立了一个新的IAP大气一植被耦合模式IAP9L_VEGAS.对该模式积分多年的结果分析表明:IAP9L_VEGAS可以较合理地模拟出植被生态系统生产力和植被、土壤碳库的总量及其季节变化,而且该模式模拟的叶面积指数的全球分布与观测资料十分接近.与未耦合动态植被模式的IAP9L模式模拟结果的比较表明:在非洲和南美等热带雨林地区,IAP9L_VEGAS模拟的叶面积指数比IAP9L中根据经验设置的大3.5以上,更接近观测;此外,IAP9L-VEGAS模拟的降水和近地面气温均较IAP9L更加接近观测实况.     

黑河流域植被覆盖度计算及其影响的中尺度模拟

运用基于遥感的中国西北土地覆盖动态监测系统(NOAA AVHRR Processing Chain,NOAA-Chain)预处理系统对改进的甚高分辨率扫描辐射仪(AVHRR)影像资料进行处理得到的归一化植被指数(NDVI),基于像元二分原理得到2002年黑河流域植被覆盖度分布,将其与Gutman 1998年所作全球植被覆盖度数据在黑河流域范围进行了对比分析,发现2002年黑河流域中上游植被整体呈退化趋势,主要绿洲区植被覆盖度增大。分别将这两套植被覆盖度数据引入中尺度大气模式MM5中进行黑河流域中上游气候模拟。通过与气温观测值的比较,发现用黑河流域植被覆盖度数据模拟的气温偏差小于用全球植被覆盖度的模拟结果;植被分布与潜热通量分布的空间相关性最好;植被覆盖度变化对局地温度场变化影响很大。     

Role of dynamic vegetation in regional climate predictions over western Africa

This study examines the role of vegetation dynamics in regional predictions of future climate change in western Africa using a dynamic vegetation model asynchronously coupled to a regional climate model. Two experiments, one for present day and one for future, are conducted with the linked regional climate-vegetation model, and the third with the regional climate model standing alone that predicts future climate based on present-day vegetation. These simulations are so designed in order to tease out the impact of structural vegetation feedback on simulated climate and hydrological processes. According to future predictions by the regional climate-vegetation model, increase in LAI is widespread, with significant shift in vegetation type. Over the Guinean Coast in 2084–2093, evergreen tree coverage decreases by 49% compared to 1984–1993, while drought deciduous tree coverage increases by 56%. Over the Sahel region in the same period, grass cover increases by 31%. Such vegetation changes are accompanied by a decrease of JJA rainfall by 2% over the Guinean Coast and an increase by 23% over the Sahel. This rather small decrease or large increase of precipitation is largely attributable to the role of vegetation feedback. Without the feedback effect from vegetation, the regional climate model would have predicted a 5% decrease of JJA rainfall in both the Guinean Coast and the Sahel as a result of the radiative and physiological effects of higher atmospheric CO₂ concentration. These results demonstrate that climate- and CO₂-induced changes in vegetation structure modify hydrological processes and climate at magnitudes comparable to or even higher than the radiative and physiological effects, thus evincing the importance of including vegetation feedback in future climate predictions.     

Influence of changed vegetations fields on regional climate simulations in the Barents Sea Region

In the context of the EU-Project BALANCE () the regional climate model REMO was used for extensive calculations of the Barents Sea climate to investigate the vulnerability of this region to climate change. The regional climate model REMO simulated the climate change of the Barents Sea Region between 1961 and 2100 (Control and Climate Change run, CCC-Run). REMO on ~50 km horizontal resolution was driven by the transient ECHAM4/OPYC3 IPCC SRES B2 scenario. The output of the CCC-Run was applied to drive the dynamic vegetation model LPJ-GUESS. The results of the vegetation model were used to repeat the CCC-Run with dynamic vegetation fields. The feedback effect of the modified vegetation on the climate change signal is investigated and discussed with focus on precipitation, temperature and snow cover. The effect of the offline coupled vegetation feedback run is much lower than the greenhouse gas effect.     

Fully coupled climate/dynamical vegetation model simulations over Northern Africa during the mid-Holocene

 The climate and vegetation patterns of the middle Holocene (6000 years ago; 6 ka) over Northern Africa are simulated using a fully-synchronous climate and dynamical vegetation model. The coupled model predicts a northward shift in tropical rainforest and tropical deciduous forest vegetation by about 5 degrees of latitude, and an increase in grassland at the present-day simulated Saharan boundaries. The northward expansion of vegetation over North Africa at 6 ka is initiated by an orbitally-induced amplification of the summer monsoon, and enhanced by feedback effects induced by the vegetation. These combined processes lead to a major reduction in Saharan desert area at 6 ka relative to present-day of about 50%. However, as shown in previous asynchronous modelling studies, the coupled climate/vegetation model does not fully reproduce the vegetation patterns inferred from palaeoenvironmental records, which suggest that steppe vegetation may have existed across most of Northern Africa. Orbital changes produce an intensification of monsoonal precipitation during the peak rainy season (July to September), whilst vegetation feedbacks, in addition to producing further increases in the peak intensity, play an important role in extending the rainy season from May/June through to November. The orbitally induced increases in precipitation are relatively uniform from west to east, in contrast to vegetation feedback-induced increases in precipitation which are concentrated in western North Africa. Annual-average precipitation increases caused by vegetation feedbacks are simulated to be of similar importance to orbital effects in the west, whilst they are relatively unimportant farther to the east. The orbital, vegetation and combined orbital and vegetation-induced changes in climate, from the simulations presented in this study, have been compared with results from previous modelling studies over the appropriate North African domain. Consequently, the important role of vegetation parametrizations in determining the magnitude of vegetation feedbacks has been illustrated. Further modelling studies which include the effects of changes in ocean temperature and changes in soil properties may be needed, along with additional observations, to resolve the discrepancy between model predictions of vegetation and palaeorecords for North Africa. Received: 15 June 1999 / Accepted: 14 December 1999