高云与高层垂直速度关系的个例研究Ⅰ.观测事实

利用ISCCP D1、D2和ECMWF再分析资料,选取1998年1月和7月进行个例分析,得到以下结论:1)高云和垂直速度的关系密切.从月平均来看,南北半球的冬夏变化呈现出明显的不对称.热带1月份的云区和上升区集中在赤道以南,呈带状分布,其中南非及相邻的西印度洋、120°E～120°W的赤道太平洋、赤道与30°S之间的南美大陆为3个主要区域;7月份云区和上升区移至赤道以北,以块状分布为主,尤其是印度洋、西太平洋的热带地区、亚洲季风区和副热带高压中心的西部形成一个大范围的闭合块状区域.2)不同类型的高云在热带和热带外地区的云顶高度是不一样的:在热带地区,深对流云、卷层云和卷云的云顶高度在180 hPa和310hPa之间;在副热带和中高纬度的绝大部分地区,卷云的云顶高度在180 hPa和310 hPa之间,而卷层云、深对流云的则在310hPa到440 hPa之间.3)不同类型的高云与相应的垂直速度的逐日变化既十分密切又各有不同,其中深对流云和垂直速度、卷层云和深对流云的同步性较好,并且卷层云和卷云可以独立于深对流云而在局地产生,这与热带高云产生于深对流云的经典观点不同;此外,在热带地区呈现低频变化的特征,这表明在大气环流模式中改进高云的模拟能力可能会提高对大气低频振荡的模拟能力.     

基于CloudSat资料的中国及周边地区各类云的宏观特征分析

利用2006年7月—2009年4月的CloudSat2B-CLDCLASS云分类资料,针对中国及周边地区(0°—60°N,70°—140°E)各类云量和垂直结构参数的地理分布及季节变化进行了统计分析,并根据气候特征的地域差异从该区域选出8个子区域,逐区统计了各类云的垂直结构特征。结果表明,各类云量的分布存在较明显的区域差异和季节变化;青藏高原和帕米尔高原地区卷云、高层云和高积云等中高云的高度和厚度相对较小,陆上深对流云的云底高度大于海上,而热带、副热带地区云顶高度大于中纬度地区;除积云、层积云和雨层云外,中国南方地区其他各类云的云层厚度均大于北方地区;除了层积云外,其他各类云的云顶高度在各区域都存在比较明显的季节变化,低云云底高度的季节变化和区域差异都很小,而中高云的云底高度除了在印度洋季风区、南海和西太平洋地区季节差异较小外,其他地区季节差异较明显,各个地区在任何季节内,深对流云厚度最大,层积云最小;各类云出现频率随高度的分布具有较明显的区域差异;卷云与高积云的相关性比较强,经常相伴出现,夏季更加明显,而雨层云和深对流云之间相互排斥,两者几乎不可能同时出现。此外,统计中国及周边地区各类云的水平均一性发现,中...     

高云与高层垂直速度关系的个例研究II·动力学分析

观测表明,高云的夏季块状分布和冬季带状分布,与低层赤道辐合带的夏季与冬季的形状十分相似;并且卷云和卷层云可以独立于深对流单独存在。作者对这两个观测分析结果进行动力学分析,结论如下:1)由于印度洋北面是青藏高原与亚洲大陆,夏季不能在北面副热带地区形成反气旋,从而印度洋赤道北面为西南气流,导致了赤道辐合带在该地区断裂并且相应的深对流在亚洲季风区的块状分布。2)利用斜压超长波理论,将Rodwell等的亚洲季风单向模型(即非绝热加热导致季风形成)作了修改,扩展为双向闭合模型。印度洋跨赤道偏南风产生大范围水汽辐合,其与地形的共同作用,产生了降水云系的高层加热,由于Sverdrup涡度平衡关系,导致了低层的偏南风而形成了一个相互作用的闭合过程,从而表明了亚洲夏季风是准定常的。3)通过详细分析涡度方程,证明除了恰好在赤道上之外,赤道辐合带上的水平辐合均会产生涡,并且这些涡由点涡(涡度的奇异部分)与各种尺度的涡(涡度的正则部分)组成。正涡度对应于云区,负涡度对应于晴空区,与赤道辐合带(ITCZ)的观测结果一致。4)由于辐合和切变产生涡,得到赤道辐合带和深对流的带状准定常维持的动力机制,即:由于赤道辐合带的辐合,其南北风辐合与东西风切变将产生涡,其与水汽的共同作用产生了深对流的上升降水云系,而降水云系的潜热诱导上升,进一步加强了水平辐合,从而表明了赤道辐合带的带状准定常维持的中介是不同尺度的涡。5)卷云和卷层云可以独立于深对流的原因是热带卷云和卷层云与流场是可以互相激发的,深对流不是其唯一的源。     

高云与高层垂直速度关系的个例研究Ⅱ.动力学分析

观测表明,高云的夏季块状分布和冬季带状分布,与低层赤道辐合带的夏季与冬季的形状十分相似;并且卷云和卷层云可以独立于深对流单独存在.作者对这两个观测分析结果进行动力学分析,结论如下:1)由于印度洋北面是青藏高原与亚洲大陆,夏季不能在北面副热带地区形成反气旋,从而印度洋赤道北面为西南气流,导致了赤道辐合带在该地区断裂并且相应的深对流在亚洲季风区的块状分布.2)利用斜压超长波理论,将Rodwell等的亚洲季风单向模型(即非绝热加热导致季风形成)作了修改,扩展为双向闭合模型.印度洋跨赤道偏南风产生大范围水汽辐合,其与地形的共同作用,产生了降水云系的高层加热,由于Sverdrup涡度平衡关系,导致了低层的偏南风而形成了一个相互作用的闭合过程,从而表明了亚洲夏季风是准定常的.3)通过详细分析涡度方程,证明除了恰好在赤道上之外,赤道辐合带上的水平辐合均会产生涡,并且这些涡由点涡(涡度的奇异部分)与各种尺度的涡(涡度的正则部分)组成.正涡度对应于云区,负涡度对应于晴空区,与赤道辐合带(ITCZ)的观测结果一致.4)由于辐合和切变产生涡,得到赤道辐合带和深对流的带状准定常维持的动力机制,即:由于赤道辐合带的辐合,其南北风辐合与东西风切变将产生涡,其与水汽的共同作用产生了深对流的上升降水云系,而降水云系的潜热诱导上升,进一步加强了水平辐合,从而表明了赤道辐合带的带状准定常维持的中介是不同尺度的涡.5)卷云和卷层云可以独立于深对流的原因是热带卷云和卷层云与流场是可以互相激发的,深对流不是其唯一的源.     

根据GMS-IR观测资料推断的大尺度云场分布及其季节变化

本文利用GMS-IR云图资料研究了90°E-170°W,50°S-50°N范围内云的分布和云季节变化的大尺度气候学特征.定量描述了自1984年6月至1986年6月3年间(1984年6月除外)云顶高度在700hPa以上的大尺度云场分布及其季节变化.通过算得高云量(云顶高于400hPa)与高、中云量(云顶高于700 hPa)的比率以及考察被云覆盖的1°×1°区域内云顶高的标准差研究了云顶高度和云型的分布和季节变化. 研究结果表明,最大云量(～4/10)区分布在150°E以西的热带,次大云量(3/10～4/10)区分布在中纬度的气旋路径带,最小云量(1/10～2/10)区在副高附近.年平均云顶高度在热带高于中纬度.在两半球中纬度的气旋路径带上,云顶高度差异悬殊:最低纬度气旋路径带上的平均云顶高度大大高于其他气旋路径带上的平均云顶高度. 热带季风区内云量的年变化很大(2/10～4/10).此外,在热带季风区大陆及其邻域(大约1000km以内)冬季云顶高度明显降低.这表明在冬季深对流活动在那里受到强烈抑制,可因冷流而加强的强对流活动限于远离大陆的区域.在冬季,自中国南方至日本这一副热带季风区也可观测到云顶高度的降低.在中国南方和东海,云顶高度大的季节变化伴随着云型显著的季节变化:暖季为深厚对流云,冷季为层状中云.除了热带和副热带季风区,深厚对流云在夏季亚洲大陆上甚至可出现在50°N的较高纬度且高云量增加达2/10.这与澳大利亚大陆明显不同,在那里除热带季风区外,全年高云很少(～0.5/10).     

非对流云的观测事实及其对大气环流模式设计的意义

通过非对流云的气候资料分析和个例分析表明：(1)非对流云有季节变化,也随海陆分布的不同而变化,还与大气三圈环流及季风等密切相关。由于它们的相关性,在大气环流模式(GCM)中对非对流云的模拟必须与提高模式其他部分的模拟能力相辅相成。(2)产生于中高纬度大范围上升气流的非对流云,由赤道辐合带积云对流所致的高空赤道地区的卷云与卷层云和形成于副热带冷海水上空的层云与层积云是新一代大气环模式显式预报的3类主要非对流云。这3类非对流云均是大尺度的,GCM的网格能显示分辨,但在垂直方向如何提高GCM的分辨率问题仍是一个有待研究的问题。(3)在GCM中如何模拟冷海水上空的层云和赤道ITCZ所对应的大范围卷云和卷层云是十分困难和必要的。(4)通过对东亚及西太平洋区域非对流云系的个例分析,可以认为在新一代大气环流模式中,应显式预报行星大槽及赤道辐合带所对应的非对流云系。在模拟这些非对流云系时,应考虑它们的生消过程、平流过程与辐射过程。由于一段时间内大气环流模式尚难以分辨锋面与α中尺度的气旋,因此有必要在GCM中参数化这些系统,或采用更小的网格距。至于对非对流云所对应的降水参数化问题的研究,需要进一步的观测为基础。     

夏季西太平洋副热带高压北跳及异常的研究

根据欧洲中心1980～1989年逐日200,500和850hPa风场、高度场及日本气象厅提供的GMS观测的黑体辐射温度（TBB）逐日资料,探讨了夏季西太平洋地区（125～145°E）副热带高压脊线季节性北跳、季内脊线位置的异常与低纬度的西风爆发和热带对流的关系。研究表明：初夏西太平洋地区低层赤道西风爆发后,西太平洋地区的赤道对流加强（赤道地区的TBB值减小）;赤道西风向北扩展,赤道强对流向北推移,热带对流加强（热带地区TBB值减小）。夏季西太平洋副热带高压脊线的二次北跳现象与低层赤道西风二次北跳及赤道对流向北推移密切相关。研究指出：夏季热带对流弱（强）,西太平洋副热带高压脊线位置相对偏南（北）,夏季西太平洋副热带高压脊线位置的异常与高、低层流场辐合、福散中心的位置及高层西风传播方向有关。     

基于CloudSat–CALIPSO资料的全球不同类型云的水平和垂直分布特征

基于Cloud Sat-CALIPSO(Cloud Sat–Cloud Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations)卫星观测资料,分析了全球总云量和8类云的云量、云底高、云顶高、云厚度的水平和垂直分布。分析结果表明,全球平均总云量为66.7%,其中卷云(Ci)和层积云(Sc)云量之和与其他6类云量总和相当,是全球云量最多的两类云。积状云云量呈现从赤道向极地递减的特征,层状云则相反,反映了二者不同的生成环境,同时下垫面地形和天气系统也严重影响云的分布。8类云的高度及厚度特征有显著差异。Ci的云底高度和云顶高度都较高,厚度则较薄;高层云(As)和高积云(Ac)的云底高度和云顶高度都位于大气中层,但As比Ac出现的高度高且厚度大;层云(St)、层积云和积云(Cu)的云底高度和云顶高度都很低,属于薄的低云;雨层云(Ns)和深对流云(DC)云底较低但云顶伸展很高,归属于厚云类。总体而言,海洋上云底高度较陆地低;赤道等大气不稳定地区,云底较高,云厚度较大;高原地区则表现出"高云不高,低云不低,云厚较薄"的特征。     

利用TRMM卫星资料对青藏高原地区强对流天气特征分析

利用热带测雨卫星TRMM(Tropical Rainfall Measure Mission)多种探测结果,结合NCEP再分析资料,研究了发生在青藏高原地区的一次强对流天气特征,综合分析了高原地区对流云特殊的水平、垂直结构特征。结果表明:(1)该强对流降水系统由几个孤立、零散的块状降水云团组成,以深厚弱对流降水为主,微波亮温的低值区也呈孤立、零散的块状分布,并且整个对流系统的云顶高度一致偏高,深厚强对流降水的雨谱主要集中在1～20mm.h-1的范围内,90%以上的深厚弱对流降水样本数和降水量都集中在0～5mm.h-1范围内,在垂直方向上呈被"挤压"状态。除云冰粒子集中在6～18km高度外,可降冰、可降水和云水粒子都集中在低层8km以下,冰雹天气表现为可降冰粒子在低层含量偏高。(2)高原地区强对流天气的特征与其他地方的不同,表现为雨强较小,比平原地区明显偏弱,且对流云降雨样本在不同降雨率范围内分布不均匀,降水云团雨顶高度也远低于平原地区的对流云,地表降水率大值区与微波辐射亮温低值区呈不完全对称分布,潜热释放呈单峰型。(3)高原地区强对流系统发生时,垂直上升运动在400hPa达到最大,水汽主要集中在400hPa高度以下的范围内。     

春季IOD影响东亚季风机制的数值研究

基于美国国家大气中心的CAM3.0模式,设计3组数值试验,以研究春季印度洋偶极子(IOD)海表温度异常对东亚夏季风的影响及其可能机制。结果表明:在IOD正位相年,对印度洋关键海区的春季海表温度加入强迫后,同期夏季(6—8月)的东亚夏季风明显偏弱:副热带高压位置偏南,长江流域上升运动加强、降水偏多,南海地区下沉运动加强、降水偏少、南海季风偏弱。还从经向、纬向垂直环流圈角度分析了IOD对东亚夏季风的可能影响机制:IOD正位相年,在IOD正SSTA区域(热带西印度洋)的东侧大约75 °E附近能激发出上升运动,而在IOD负SSTA区域(热带东印度洋)的东侧大约110 °E附近出现下沉运动,从而构成一个完整的纬向垂直环流圈;110 °E附近的下沉运动又可能通过经向垂直环流圈影响南海和东亚副热带地区,造成东亚经度上赤道地区为上升运动、南海地区为下沉运动、长江流域为上升运动的异常经圈环流,从而使得东亚夏季风(包括南海季风和东亚副热带季风)整体偏弱。      

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS DATA OF AIR–SEA TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AND ITS VARIATION ACROSS SOUTH CHINA SEA IN THE PAST 35 YEARS

Using the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set(ICOADS) and ERA-Interim data, spatial distributions of air-sea temperature difference(ASTD) in the South China Sea(SCS) for the past 35 years are compared,and variations of spatial and temporal distributions of ASTD in this region are addressed using empirical orthogonal function decomposition and wavelet analysis methods. The results indicate that both ICOADS and ERA-Interim data can reflect actual distribution characteristics of ASTD in the SCS, but values of ASTD from the ERA-Interim data are smaller than those of the ICOADS data in the same region. In addition, the ASTD characteristics from the ERA-Interim data are not obvious inshore. A seesaw-type, north-south distribution of ASTD is dominant in the SCS; i.e., a positive peak in the south is associated with a negative peak in the north in November, and a negative peak in the south is accompanied by a positive peak in the north during April and May. Interannual ASTD variations in summer or autumn are decreasing. There is a seesaw-type distribution of ASTD between Beibu Bay and most of the SCS in summer, and the center of large values is in the Nansha Islands area in autumn. The ASTD in the SCS has a strong quasi-3a oscillation period in all seasons, and a quasi-11 a period in winter and spring. The ASTD is positively correlated with the Nio3.4 index in summer and autumn but negatively correlated in spring and winter.     

CHARACTERISTICS AND TRENDS OF CLIMATIC EXTREMES IN CHINA DURING 1959–2014

The spatial and temporal variations of daily maximum temperature(Tmax), daily minimum temperature(Tmin), daily maximum precipitation(Pmax) and daily maximum wind speed(WSmax) were examined in China using Mann-Kendall test and linear regression method. The results indicated that for China as a whole, Tmax, Tmin and Pmax had significant increasing trends at rates of 0.15℃ per decade, 0.45℃ per decade and 0.58 mm per decade,respectively, while WSmax had decreased significantly at 1.18 m·s~(-1) per decade during 1959—2014. In all regions of China, Tmin increased and WSmax decreased significantly. Spatially, Tmax increased significantly at most of the stations in South China(SC), northwestern North China(NC), northeastern Northeast China(NEC), eastern Northwest China(NWC) and eastern Southwest China(SWC), and the increasing trends were significant in NC, SC, NWC and SWC on the regional average. Tmin increased significantly at most of the stations in China, with notable increase in NEC, northern and southeastern NC and northwestern and eastern NWC. Pmax showed no significant trend at most of the stations in China, and on the regional average it decreased significantly in NC but increased in SC, NWC and the mid-lower Yangtze River valley(YR). WSmax decreased significantly at the vast majority of stations in China, with remarkable decrease in northern NC, northern and central YR, central and southern SC and in parts of central NEC and western NWC. With global climate change and rapidly economic development, China has become more vulnerable to climatic extremes and meteorological disasters, so more strategies of mitigation and/or adaptation of climatic extremes,such as environmentally-friendly and low-cost energy production systems and the enhancement of engineering defense measures are necessary for government and social publics.     

IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC LOW-FREQUENCY OSCILLATION ON THE IMMIGRATION OF NILAPARVATA LUGENS(STL) IN HUNAN AND JIANGXI PROVINCES

Various features of the atmospheric environment affect the number of migratory insects, besides their initial population. However, little is known about the impact of atmospheric low-frequency oscillation(10 to 90 days) on insect migration. A case study was conducted to ascertain the influence of low-frequency atmospheric oscillation on the immigration of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens(Stl), in Hunan and Jiangxi provinces. The results showed the following:(1) The number of immigrating N. lugens from April to June of 2007 through 2016 mainly exhibited a periodic oscillation of 10 to 20 days.(2) The 10-20 d low-frequency number of immigrating N. lugens was significantly correlated with a low-frequency wind field and a geopotential height field at 850 h Pa.(3) During the peak phase of immigration, southwest or south winds served as a driving force and carried N. lugens populations northward, and when in the back of the trough and the front of the ridge, the downward airflow created a favorable condition for N. lugens to land in the study area. In conclusion, the northward migration of N. lugens was influenced by a low-frequency atmospheric circulation based on the analysis of dynamics. This study was the first research connecting atmospheric low-frequency oscillation to insect migration.     

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC CONDITIONS BEFORE THE OCCURRENCE OF TWO TYPES OF EL NIO EVENTS

The atmospheric and oceanic conditions before the onset of EP El Ni?o and CP El Ni?o in nearly 30 years are compared and analyzed by using 850 hPa wind, 20℃ isotherm depth, sea surface temperature and the Wheeler and Hendon index. The results are as follows: In the western equatorial Pacific, the occurrence of the anomalously strong westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Its intensity is far stronger than that of the CP El Ni?o. Two months before the El Ni?o, the anomaly westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o have extended to the eastern Pacific region, while the westerly wind anomaly of the CP El Ni?o can only extend to the west of the dateline three months before the El Ni?o and later stay there. Unlike the EP El Ni?o, the CP El Ni?o is always associated with easterly wind anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific before its onset. The thermocline depth anomaly of the EP El Ni?o can significantly move eastward and deepen. In addition, we also find that the evolution of thermocline is ahead of the development of the sea surface temperature for the EP El Ni?o. The strong MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o in the western and central Pacific is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Measured by the standard deviation of the zonal wind square, the intensity of MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o is significantly greater than that of the CP El Ni?o before the onset of El Ni?o.     

Could the Recent Taal Volcano Eruption Trigger an El Ni?o and Lead to Eurasian Warming?

正The Taal Volcano in Luzon is one of the most active and dangerous volcanoes of the Philippines. A recent eruption occurred on 12 January 2020(Fig. 1a), and this volcano is still active with the occurrence of volcanic earthquakes. The eruption has become a deep concern worldwide, not only for its damage on local society, but also for potential hazardous consequences on the Earth's climate and environment.     

VARIABILITY OF INTER-ANNUAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE AND HUAXI REGION’S AUTUMN PRECIPITATION

The moving-window correlation analysis was applied to investigate the relationship between autumn Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) events and the synchronous autumn precipitation in Huaxi region, based on the daily precipitation, sea surface temperature (SST) and atmospheric circulation data from 1960 to 2012. The correlation curves of IOD and the early modulation of Huaxi region’s autumn precipitation indicated a mutational site appeared in the 1970s. During 1960 to 1979, when the IOD was in positive phase in autumn, the circulations changed from a “W” shape to an ”M” shape at 500 hPa in Asia middle-high latitude region. Cold flux got into the Sichuan province with Northwest flow, the positive anomaly of the water vapor flux transported from Western Pacific to Huaxi region strengthened, caused precipitation increase in east Huaxi region. During 1980 to 1999, when the IOD in autumn was positive phase, the atmospheric circulation presented a “W” shape at 500 hPa, the positive anomaly of the water vapor flux transported from Bay of Bengal to Huaxi region strengthened, caused precipitation ascend in west Huaxi region. In summary, the Indian Ocean changed from cold phase to warm phase since the 1970s, caused the instability of the inter-annual relationship between the IOD and the autumn rainfall in Huaxi region.     

ANALYSIS OF “BIMODAL PATTERN” STORM ACTIVITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAY OF BENGAL

Storms that occur at the Bay of Bengal (BoB) are of a bimodal pattern, which is different from that of the other sea areas. By using the NCEP, SST and JTWC data, the causes of the bimodal pattern storm activity of the BoB are diagnosed and analyzed in this paper. The result shows that the seasonal variation of general atmosphere circulation in East Asia has a regulating and controlling impact on the BoB storm activity, and the “bimodal period” of the storm activity corresponds exactly to the seasonal conversion period of atmospheric circulation. The minor wind speed of shear spring and autumn contributed to the storm, which was a crucial factor for the generation and occurrence of the “bimodal pattern” storm activity in the BoB. The analysis on sea surface temperature (SST) shows that the SSTs of all the year around in the BoB area meet the conditions required for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). However, the SSTs in the central area of the bay are higher than that of the surrounding areas in spring and autumn, which facilitates the occurrence of a “two-peak” storm activity pattern. The genesis potential index (GPI) quantifies and reflects the environmental conditions for the generation of the BoB storms. For GPI, the intense low-level vortex disturbance in the troposphere and high-humidity atmosphere are the sufficient conditions for storms, while large maximum wind velocity of the ground vortex radius and small vertical wind shear are the necessary conditions of storms.     

LOW-FREQUENCY CIRCULATION AND EXTENDED-RANGE FORECAST IN CONNECTION WITH AUTUMN EXTREME HEAVY RAINFALL PROCESS IN HAINAN

Observed daily precipitation data from the National Meteorological Observatory in Hainan province and daily data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis-2 dataset from 1981 to 2014 are used to analyze the relationship between Hainan extreme heavy rainfall processes in autumn (referred to as EHRPs) and 10–30 d low-frequency circulation. Based on the key low-frequency signals and the NCEP Climate Forecast System Version 2 (CFSv2) model forecasting products, a dynamical-statistical method is established for the extended-range forecast of EHRPs. The results suggest that EHRPs have a close relationship with the 10–30 d low-frequency oscillation of 850 hPa zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north, and that they basically occur during the trough phase of the low-frequency oscillation of zonal wind. The latitudinal propagation of the low-frequency wave train in the middle-high latitudes and the meridional propagation of the low-frequency wave train along the coast of East Asia contribute to the ‘north high (cold), south low (warm)’ pattern near Hainan Island, which results in the zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north reaching its trough, consequently leading to EHRPs. Considering the link between low-frequency circulation and EHRPs, a low-frequency wave train index (LWTI) is defined and adopted to forecast EHRPs by using NCEP CFSv2 forecasting products. EHRPs are predicted to occur during peak phases of LWTI with value larger than 1 for three or more consecutive forecast days. Hindcast experiments for EHRPs in 2015–2016 indicate that EHRPs can be predicted 8–24 d in advance, with an average period of validity of 16.7 d.     

AN ATTRIBUTION ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION IN THE BEIJING–TIANJIN–HEBEI REGION UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

Based on the measurements obtained at 64 national meteorological stations in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region between 1970 and 2013, the potential evapotranspiration (ET0) in this region was estimated using the Penman–Monteith equation and its sensitivity to maximum temperature (Tmax), minimum temperature (Tmin), wind speed (Vw), net radiation (Rn) and water vapor pressure (Pwv) was analyzed, respectively. The results are shown as follows. (1) The climatic elements in the BTH region underwent significant changes in the study period. Vw and Rn decreased significantly, whereas Tmin, Tmax and Pwv increased considerably. (2) In the BTH region, ET0 also exhibited a significant decreasing trend, and the sensitivity of ET0 to the climatic elements exhibited seasonal characteristics. Of all the climatic elements, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv in the fall and winter and Rn in the spring and summer. On the annual scale, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv, followed by Rn, Vw, Tmax and Tmin. In addition, the sensitivity coefficient of ET0 with respect to Pwv had a negative value for all the areas, indicating that increases in Pwv can prevent ET0 from increasing. (3) The sensitivity of ET0 to Tmin and Tmax was significantly lower than its sensitivity to other climatic elements. However, increases in temperature can lead to changes in Pwv and Rn. The temperature should be considered the key intrinsic climatic element that has caused the "evaporation paradox" phenomenon in the BTH region.     

Revisiting the Concentration Observations and Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Ammonia

正While China’s Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan on particulate matter since 2013 has reduced sulfate significantly, aerosol ammonium nitrate remains high in East China. As the high nitrate abundances are strongly linked with ammonia, reducing ammonia emissions is becoming increasingly important to improve the air quality of China. Although satellite data provide evidence of substantial increases in atmospheric ammonia concentrations over major agricultural regions, long-term surface observation of ammonia concentrations are sparse. In addition, there is still no consensus on