The relative stability of prehistorical geographic environment in China’s tropics on the basis of archaeology

According to archaeological data from about sixty samples the relative stability of physical and human geographical environment in the tropical zone of China is discussed in this paper. Because of the superior natural environment, sufficient food resources and a sparse population resulting in the absence of social requirement to transform the productive forces, the advancement of economy and society was stagnated during prehistorical period in China’s tropics. Compared with northern China, the appearance of ground stone tool stagnated about 3,000 years, the beginning of Bronze Age, about 1,000 years, and the agriculture, 2,500–3,000 years. The no ceramics age continued till the early Neolithic Age and the appearance of colour or white ceramics was 2,000 years later than that in northern China. The life form of migration to gather and to hunt continued till the middle Neolithic Age, and the fixed settlement based on agriculture 1,000–2,000 years stagnated. The clan commune just appeared at the end of the Neolithic Age which was 2, 000–3,000 years later than that in northern China.     

The relative stability of prehistorical geographic environment in China's tropics on the basis of archaeology

According to archaeological data from about sixty samples the relative stability of physical and human geographical environment in the tropical zone of China is discussed in this paper. Because of the superior natural environment, sufficient food resources and a sparse population resulting in the absence of social requirement to transform the productive forces, the advancement of economy and society was stagnated during prehistorical period in China's tropics. Compared with northern China, the appearance of ground stone tool stagnated about 3,000 years, the beginning of Bronze Age, about 1,000 years, and the agriculture, 2,500-3,000 years. The no ceramics age continued till the early Neolithic Age and the appearance of colour or white ceramics was 2,000 years later than that in northern China. The life form of migration to gather and to hunt continued till the middle Neolithic Age, and the fixed settlement based on agriculture 1,000-2,000 years stagnated. The clan commune just appeared at the end of the Neolithic Age which was 2,000-3,000 years later than that in northern China.     

鄱阳湖流域史前人类遗址时空分布及其环境响应（英文）

The temporal-spatial geographic distribution of archaeological sites and its feature between 10.0–2.8 ka BP(ka BP= thousands of years before 0 BP, where "0 BP" is defined as the year AD 1950) were determined, based on GIS spatial analysis in the Poyang Lake Basin. The relationship between geographic distribution of sites of different periods under subsistence existence of ancient civilizations, climate and environmental change was investigated. The results revealed numerous archaeological sites of the Neolithic Age(10.0–3.6 ka BP). The sites were mainly located in the northern part of the Poyang Lake Basin, a hilly and mountainous area with many river terraces suitable for the development of human civilization. The number of archaeological sites rapidly increased during the Shang and Zhou dynasties(3.6–2.8 ka BP) and spread widely on the floodplains of the middle and lower reaches of Ganjiang River and onto the west, south, and southeast beach areas of the Poyang Lake. Holocene records of climate change suggested that it was possible that climate fluctuations had a great impact on human evolution in the study area. Before 3.6 ka BP, westward and northward expansion of Neolithic cultures in the Poyang Lake watershed occurred under the background of climate amelioration(becoming warmer and wetter). The ancient people lived in the hilly areas with high elevation. The simple mode of a fishing and gathering economy was mostly suited to this area in the early Neolithic Age. The scope of human activities was expanded and cultural diversity developed in the late Neolithic Age. However, with population growth and increasing survival pressure in a dry-cold climatic stage after 3.6 ka BP, this simple living mode had to be abandoned, and various forms of economy, the majority being agriculture, were developed on flood plains of the lower reaches of numerous rivers around Poyang Lake. This promoted flourishing of the Bronze culture of South China.     

Environmental changes in the central Po Plain (northern Italy) due to fluvial modifications and anthropogenic activities

The fluvial environment of the central Po Plain, the largest plain in Italy, is discussed in this paper. Bounded by the mountain chains of the Alps and the Apennines, this plain is a link between the Mediterranean environment and the cultural and continental influences of both western and eastern Europe. In the past decades, economic development has been responsible for many changes in the fluvial environment of the area.This paper discusses the changes in fluvial dynamics that started from Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene due to distinct climatic changes. The discussion is based on geomorphological, pedological, and archaeological evidences and radiocarbon dating.In the northern foothills, Late Pleistocene palaeochannels indicate several cases of underfit streams among the northern tributaries of the River Po. On the other hand, on the southern side of the Po Plain, no geomorphological evidence of similar discharge reduction has been found. Here, stratigraphic sections, together with archaeological remains buried under the fluvial deposits, show a reduction in the size of fluvial sediments after the 10th millennium BC. During the Holocene, fluvial sedimentation became finer, and was characterised by minor fluctuations in the rate of deposition, probably related to short and less intense climatic fluctuations.Given the high rate of population growth and the development of human activities since the Neolithic Age, human influence on fluvial dynamics, especially since the Roman Age, prevailed over other factors (i.e., climate, tectonics, vegetation, etc.). During the Holocene, the most important changes in the Po Plain were not modifications in water discharge but in sediment. From the 1st to 3rd Century AD, land grants to war veterans caused almost complete deforestation, generalised soil erosion, and maximum progradation of the River Po delta. At present, land abandonment in the mountainous region has led to reafforestation. Artificial channel control in the mountain sector of the basins and in-channel gravel extraction (now illegal but very intense in the 1960s and 1970s) are causing erosion along the rivers and along large sectors of the Adriatic coast. These changes are comparable with those occurring in basins of other Mediterranean rivers.     

青藏高原史前时期交流路线及其演变

欧亚大陆史前文化交流是当前学术界研究的热点问题,尤其是“一带一路”的国家倡议提出后,青藏高原重要的地理位置确定了其在东西方文化交流中的重要地位。本文基于自然地理因子和不同时期遗址点,在最低成本的控制下实现节点间累积联结的方法,使用GIS（R语言）工具进行空间数值计算,将其结果作为史前时期（新石器—青铜时期)的交流路线。本文重建新石器时期路线27条,总距离约为6000 km;青铜时代30条,总距离约为7800 km。路线的形态由新石器时期的东北—东部—东南—西南边缘呈月牙形环绕发展至青铜时期的由边缘延伸至腹地呈网络化发展的趋势,这是由高原边缘的交流逐步演化成边缘—腹地的交流、并不断强化的表现。重建路线验证了由考古证据支持的农业、驯化动物、彩陶、青铜技术在高原的传播路线,并将其具体化。此外,明确了高原史前交流路线的发展和演变宏观上是受到气候变化的影响,同时受到种植农业技术、驯化动物的传入以及战争等多因素的综合影响。     

河北省南部新石器时代人地关系研究

该文通过考古及古环境资料,分析了河北省南部地区新石器时代文化分布特点、古环境演变规律和人地关系,认为环境对于人类活动及人类文化发展的制约是主要的,环境不仅影响遗址的数量及分布位置,而且影响文化的性质及存续时间。在气候温暖期,河北省南部地区较多受中原文化及山东文化区系的影响,而在气候变冷或变干期,形成具有自己特色的文化或受北方文化影响较大。但人类活动已在一定程度上影响环境变化,刀耕火种的农业生产方式,使得局部地区的原始植被,特别是森林植被遭到较大程度的破坏,使得先民们不得不频繁迁移,因此在河北省南部,多数遗址文化层较薄且少有叠压现象。太行山区植被的破坏可能在新石器时代即已出现。     

江苏海安青墩地区新石器时代环境考古

通过对海安青墩遗址剖面进行磁化率、粒度、孢粉、14 C测年等指标分析 ,结果表明 ,剖面第 8层至第 7层是一个海退过程 ,同时微体古生物分析表明这两层均无有孔虫 ,可知当时此区域离海较远。第 8层到第 7层气候向暖湿方向转化 ,良好的气候环境条件为后来该区域人类活动的发展创造了条件。测年资料表明第 6层为距今 3790± 10 5 14 CaB .P .,是大暖期后面的一个气候波动和缓的亚稳定暖湿期 ,当时中国绝大部分地区气候要比现今暖湿。剖面的第 3、 4、 5层 ,即 4 0 0 0 14 CaB .P .以来的一个时期 ,该区出现了一洪水泛滥期 ,正是这一洪水期导致该区域人类文明的衰落。     

Human–environment dynamics during the Iron Age in the Lofoten Islands,Norway

Integrated archaeological and paleoenvironmental investigations provide long-term perspectives on human–environment interactions. In the North Atlantic region, early human settlements were established in marginal agricultural environments and were susceptible to various environmental stressors. The Lofoten Islands have had an important role in the history of this region, particularly during the Iron Age, when Lofoten developed from pioneering agricultural settlements to a prominent node of power and trade under Viking chieftains. Iron Age developments in Lofoten were concurrent with significant natural environmental changes, including variations in climate and sea level. However, there has not been a comprehensive investigation of their influence on early settlements. The purpose of the study is to review Iron Age cultural developments in Lofoten using published archaeological data and paleoenvironmental records of past climate and sea-level change, and to present specific examples of the intersection of early human development and natural environmental changes. The findings show that climate changes probably influenced agricultural phases and that relative sea-level variations had important impacts on maritime developments. In conclusion, the findings demonstrate that human–environment interactions were significant factors in Lofoten’s history and the authors suggest specific areas for future research.     

Settlement distribution and its relationship with environmental changes from the Neolithic to Shang-Zhou dynasties in northern Shandong, China

In this paper, the spatial and temporal distribution of the settlement sites of six periods from the Neolithic Age to the Shang and Zhou dynasties in northern Shandong was investigated using the ArcGIS program, and the relationship between settlement distribution and environmental changes was discussed, based on the proxy records of climatic and environmental change contained in the sediments from three sections at the Shuangwangcheng site and the previous work. The results show that the climate was warm and humid and the sea level was relatively high during the period of 8000-5000 a BP in the study area, and the ancient people lived in the relatively flat （slope of 〈2°） areas at high elevation （20-300 m above sea level）, such as diluvial tableland and alluvial plain. On the other hand, few archaeological sites in the low-lying plain in the west of the study area indicate that few people lived there during that period. This might be attributed to frequent flooding in the area. After 5000 years ago, the scope of human activity extended to the area close to the sea because the relatively colder and drier climate results in sea-level fall, meanwhile the low-lying plain in the west was occupied by the ancient people. The study area of this period was characterized by the rapid development of prehistoric culture, the intensified social stratification and the emergence of early city-states. However, around 4000 a BP, the abrupt change in climate and the increase in frequency and intensity of floods severely disrupted human activities, and eventually led to the decline of the Yueshi culture. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, the climatic conditions gradually stabilized in a mild-dry state, which promoted the redevelopment and flourish of the Bronze Culture. The previous situation, which was characteristic of sparse human settlements due to freshwater shortage and unfitted conditions for sedentary agriculture, changed during the Shang and Zhou dynasties in northern coastal wetlands.Local residents effectively adapted themselves to the tough environmental conditions by producing sea-salt, which led to the rapid growth of human activities.     

Cultural evolution and spatial-temporal distribution of archaeological sites from 9.5–2.3 ka BP in the Yan-Liao region,China

With basic information from 8353 archaeological sites, this study describes a holistic spatial-temporal distribution pattern of archaeological sites of the prehistoric culture sequence from 9.5 ka BP (ka BP = thousands of years before 0 BP, where “0 BP” is defined as the year AD 1950) to 2.3 ka BP in the region that extends from the Yanshan Mountains to the Liaohe River Plain (i.e., the Yan-Liao region) in northern China. Based on spatial statistics analysis–including the spatial density of the sites and Geographic Information System nearest- neighbour analysis, combined with a review of environmental and climatic data–this paper analyses cultural evolution, the spatial-temporal features of the archaeological sites and human activities against the backdrop of climatic and environmental changes in this region. The results reveal that prehistoric cultural evolution in the Yan-Liao region is extensively influenced by climatic and environmental changes. The Xinglongwa, Zhaobaogou and Fuhe cultures, which primarily developed during a habitable period from 8.5 ka BP to 6.0 ka BP with strong summer monsoons, have similar maximum density values, spatial patterns and subsistence strategies dominated by hunting-gathering. Significant changes occurred in the Hongshan and Lower Xiajiadian cultures, with a significant increase in numbers and densities of sites and a slump in average nearest-neighbour ratio when the environment began to deteriorate starting in 6.0 ka BP. Additionally, with the onset of a weak summer monsoon and the predominance of primitive agriculture, sites of these two cultures present a different type of concentric circle-shaped pattern in space. As the environment continuously deteriorated with increasing aridity and the spread of steppe, more sites were distributed towards the south, and primitive agriculture was replaced by livestock husbandry in the Upper Xiajiadian culture. The most densely populated areas of the studied cultures are centralized within a limited area. The Laohahe River and Jiaolaihe River basins formed the core area in which most archaeological sites were distributed during the strong summer monsoon period and the first few thousand years of the weak summer monsoon period.

     

江汉平原钟桥遗址地层揭示的史前洪水事件

通过野外考古调查研究,利用对钟桥遗址疑似古洪水层和研究区现代洪水沉积物的锆石微形态、粒度、磁化率、Rb/Sr等地球化学指标的比较、AMS¹⁴C技术和考古器物断代,发现钟桥遗址在4800~4597 cal. a BP、4479~4367 cal. a BP和4168~3850 cal. a BP分别经历了三次古洪水事件并相应堆积了古洪水沉积层;结合江汉平原及其周边地区众多遗址的古洪水沉积层时代对比证据,揭示了屈家岭文化中晚期（4900~4600 cal. a BP）和石家河文化末期至夏代（4100~3800 cal. a BP）两次大洪水事件在江汉平原地区非常普遍。对史前洪水发生环境背景的进一步分析,反映江汉平原在5000~4500 a BP及4000 a BP前后的时段气候表现得不稳定,古洪水事件与气候环境变化驱动的江汉平原湖群扩张存在一定的联系,并影响区域新石器文化兴衰过程。同时,其它证据也表明该区社会发展过程和环境变化过程特别是古水文过程的矛盾在石家河文化末期已特别突出,发现具有全球意义的4000 a BP前后气候异常引起的大洪水事件是江汉平原地区石家河文化消亡的重要环境因素;而石家河文化末期该区内部或同中原以及其它地区间的冲突,都加速了石家河文化的崩溃。这些研究成果,提供了可靠的大禹时代史前洪水证据来说明其对新石器文化兴衰的社会影响,对于揭示4000 a BP气候事件中区域气候水文变化的响应规律,亦具有重要的科学意义。     

山东北部地区聚落遗址时空分布与环境演变的关系

利用GIS软件对山东北部地区聚落遗址时空分布特征进行分析,并结合双王城剖面沉积环境分析和前人研究成果探讨了聚落时空分布与环境演变之间的关系。结果表明:距今8000-5000 年间,在气候温暖湿润和海面相对较高的环境背景下,人类活动主要集中在海拔相对较高(20~200 m),地形较为平坦(坡度< 2°)的洪积台地和冲积平原上;西部平原地区由于地势低洼,容易积水而发生水患,因而很少有遗址分布。距今5000 年之后,气候暖湿程度降低,海平面持续下降,人类活动范围明显向海扩展;西部低洼地区在气候变干和海面降低的双重影响下,自然环境得到改善,也开始被古人广泛开发利用。这一时期区域文化繁荣发展,逐渐形成社会结构复杂、城邦林立的初期文明。然而距今4000 年左右,由于气候变化和洪患灾害加剧,史前文化开始明显衰落。商周时期气候环境趋于稳定,文化发展再次兴盛。北部滨海平原地区随着生产技术的进步,人类适应区域资源环境条件,在早期农业人群难以定居的滩涂地上形成以盐业生产为主要经济活动的聚落群。     

距今五千年左右环境恶化事件对我国新石器文化的影响及其原因的初步探讨

距今五千年左右全球普遍存在一次变化幅度较大的突发性环境恶化事件 ,此事件导致各地生态环境发生了较大的变化 ,与此同时的我国新石器文化表现为衰退和在某些地点的中断。气候环境变化是该时段影响人类文化发展变化的主要因素。环境变化对史前文化影响的可能原因是 :气候变化导致生态环境变化 ,生态环境变化导致直接影响人类生存的生物营养源的变化 ,进而导致史前文化的变化。     

长江三角洲长江以北地区全新世以来人地关系的环境考古研究

通过长江三角洲长江以北地区高邮龙虬庄和海安青墩两个新石器时代考古遗址剖面粒度、磁化率、孢粉以及年代学测定，较为全面地分析了该区全新世以来生态环境变化与人类文明兴衰的相互关系，研究结果表明：在有人类活动以前，该区距离海洋较远，但受海面变化影响强烈。此后，气候向暖湿方向发展，7000—6000间的大西洋温暖湿润气候以及3700aB．P．左右期间，该区气候适宜，人类文明在这样的适宜气侯条件下得到长足发展。值得注意的是，海安青墩遗址剖面中出现厚达1m多的自然沉积地层，粒度分析以及孢粉分析表明，这一自然沉积地层是4000aB．P．以来的海侵事件所致，正是这次海侵事件，使研究区人类文明得以衰落。     

长江中游新石器时代遗址规模的分布特征

运用ArcGIS软件建立了长江中游地区9.0~4.0 ka BP文化遗址的空间数据库,采用叠加分析和统计学方法,对文化遗址的规模、海拔分布、坡度、距河流远近等特征进行了系统分析。结果表明：① 由新石器时代早期到晚期,遗址的数量、规模和分布范围等均呈现增长或扩大趋势,叠置型遗址个数增加;② 遗址一般具有低海拔、平缓地形和距河流较近的选址倾向,晚期的文化遗址大体保持该倾向,但对海拔、坡度及距河流远近等的选择开始出现分化。③ 新石器时代晚期不同规模的文化遗址在选址上存在一定分异。小型遗址多分布在坡度为6°~15°的缓坡地,中型及以上规模的遗址更倾向于坡度为2°~6°平缓地;中小型至大型遗址的海拔分布均以30~50 m为主,特大型遗址的海拔分布以50~100 m为主;特大型遗址在距河流1000 m以内的分布比例高于其他规模遗址;④ 新石器文化在早中期受气候、水源、地形等自然环境因素影响较大,晚期文化的适应能力有所增强。     

Holocene environmental changes around Xiaohe Cemetery and its effects on human occupation,Xinjiang, China

The Xiaohe Cemetery archaeological site (Cal. 4–3.5 ka BP) is one of the most important Bronze Age sites in Xinjiang, China. Although the surrounding environment is an extremely arid desert now, abundant archaeological remains indicate that human occupation was common during certain periods in the Holocene. Field investigations and laboratory analyses of a sediment profile near the Xiaohe Cemetery indicate that while the regional environment was arid desert throughout the Holocene there were three episodes of lake formation near the site in the periods 4.8–3.5 ka BP, 2.6–2.1 ka BP and 1.2–0.9 ka BP. Geomorphic and hydrological investigations reveal that a lake or lakes formed in a low-lying area when water was derived initially from the Kongque River and then shunted into the Xiaohe River basin. Low amounts of active chemical elements in lacustrine sediment between 4.8–3.5 ka BP indicate abundant and continuous water volume in the lake; the content of active chemical elements increased between 2.6–2.1 ka BP but was still at a relatively low level, suggesting a declining amount of water and diminished inflow. Between 1.2–0.9 ka BP there was a very high content of active elements, suggesting decreased water volume and indicating that the lake was stagnate. In contrast, the general climate condition shows that there had a warm-humid stage at 8–6 ka BP, a cool-humid stage at 6–2.9 ka BP and a warm-dry stage at 2.9–0.9 ka BP in this region. The hydrological evolutions around Xiaohe Cemetery did not have one-to-one correspondence with climate changes. Regional comparison indicates that broad-scale climatic conditions played an important role through its influences on the water volume of the Tarim River and Kongque River. But, the formation of the lakes and their level were controlled by geomorphic conditions that influenced how much water volume could be shunted to Xiaohe River from Kongque River. Human occupation of the Xiaohe Cemetery and nearby regions during the Bronze Age and Han-Jin period (202 BC–420 AD) corresponded to the two earlier lake periods, while no human activities existed in the third lake period because of the decreased water volume.     

Sir Vivian Fuchs FRS 1908-1999

A palaeoecological investigation in the Bodø area (Salten, Nordland) records a shift from Betula-dominated forest to mostly treeless vegetation during the last 4000 years. Corylus avellana, now at its northern limits in this region, was previously more abundant within the area. Deforestation started c. 3500–3000 BP, most likely connected to human activity during the early Bronze Age. After the onset of anthropogenic disturbance, heathland was established, initially with a dominance of Calluna vulgaris and Empetrum. Later on, c. 900 BP, Calluna was dominant. The heathland was probably subject to management, including burning. It should be viewed as a part of a northern extension of the western European heathland vegetation of the coast of SW Norway.     

A geographical analysis of the Atalanti alluvial plain and coastline as the location of a potential tourist site, Bronze through Early Iron Age Mitrou, East-Central Greece

Tourism accounts for 15% of Greece’s gross domestic product. In the wake of a struggling economy many of Greece’s coastal villages have turned to tourism to supplement local economies. Preliminary analysis of structural and cultural materials recovered from an excavation on Mitrou, a small islet near the coastal village Tragana located 140 km north of Athens has established the site’s contribution to a fuller understanding of settlement practices in Central Greece from the end of the Bronze Age through the Early Iron Age. The site’s historic importance combined with its scenic coastal setting has considerable potential to be developed into an important tourist site. The physical geography of the region is the product of the complex interaction of coastal, alluvial, fluvial, and seismic processes. This investigation integrates the archaeological material with a geographical analysis employing a variety of geographical techniques (soil and sediment analysis, past climatic data, environmental surveys, and geospatial modeling) to reconstruct the geomorphological history of the site and to evaluate the area as a potential tourist site.     

‘A land history of men’: The intersection of geomorphology,culture and heritage in Cornwall,southwest England

Relationships between landscape-scale geomorphology and aspects of the human environment (including heritage and material cultures) are best examined in landscapes with a strong geomorphological imprint of past climatic and environmental changes, and where human activity has been present for a long period of time. In Cornwall, southwest England, a strong geomorphological signature is imparted by weathering of granite bedrock under cold Quaternary climates, and a strong cultural and heritage imprint is manifested in material and nonmaterial ways through archaeology, art, literature and folklore, and is illustrated in this paper through examples of Bodmin Moor (north Cornwall) and West Penwith (west Cornwall). Landscapes of Bodmin Moor include wide valleys with underfit rivers and upland summits with prominent tors, resulting from granite weathering and slope processes during the Tertiary and Quaternary. Pollen records show how human activity has changed on the moor over time, with a peak of settlement during the Bronze Age, and expansion of grazing into the Iron Age. Daphne du Maurier's novels, set on or adjacent to Bodmin Moor, emphasize the moor's relationship to unstable and intense human emotions and crises. In West Penwith, which is geomorphological similar to Bodmin Moor, geomorphology–culture relations are demonstrated in different ways but through a similar sense of place and regional identity. The St Ives School of early 20th Century art, including the local artist Peter Lanyon and the sculptor Barbara Hepworth, draws inspiration from the local land and seascapes. The oral traditions and folklore of Zennor emphasize the importance of witchcraft and superstition that are in part founded on the wildness of upland summits and stormy coastline. Across West Penwith, tin mining and the mining trade exerted a strong impact on regional socioeconomic and cultural development from the Bronze Age until the end of the 19th Century, seen through settlement patterns, scientific innovation and Nonconformism. Today these geomorphology–culture relations are memorialized in the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape World Heritage Site.     

Impact of early prehistoric farming on chironomid communities in northwest Ireland

This study explored the utility and performance of chironomid (Diptera: Chironomidae) autecology in the investigation of prehistoric farming impacts on freshwater lake systems. Chironomid subfossils, lake sediment geochemistry (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N and C:N), pollen and macroscopic charcoal analyses were used in a comparative limnological assessment of three archaeologically rich study sites in northwest Ireland. At all three study sites, pastoral farming and its associated nutrient inputs, as represented by non-arboreal pollen indicative of grassland/pasture (NAPp) and lake sediment geochemistry, are concomitant with increases in eutrophic chironomid taxa. Redundancy analysis (RDA) and partial RDAs established that δ¹⁵N and NAPp were controlling factors of chironomid community compositional change during the Neolithic (4000–2500 BC) and Bronze Age (2500–600 BC). Bronze Age farming had a considerably greater impact on the lake systems than Neolithic farming, as indicated by a higher proportion of eutrophic taxa and increases in δ¹⁵N, C:N and δ¹³C values, consistent with increased erosion and agricultural inputs. Findings emphasise the importance of identifying the natural, pre-impacted state of a lake system to determine the extent of agricultural impact accurately. The timing and magnitude of change show that Neolithic and Bronze Age farming exhibited a strong control over chironomid communities at all three sites.