Mound springs of the Great Artesian Basin in South Australia: a case study from Olympic Dam

 The mound springs of South Australia are a unique groundwater discharge feature of the Great Artesian Basin (GAB), a deep regional groundwater system that covers 22% of the Australian continent. They are the principal sources of surface water in the arid to semi-arid inland heart of Australia, and have great ecological, scientific, anthropological and economic significance. Excessive development of the Great Artesian Basin over the past century by European activity has seen an overall decline in the flows from the springs. Recent development of the water supply borefields for the Olympic Dam copper-uranium mine in the midst of one the most important spring groups has exacerbated this problem. A review of the history of the Olympic Dam borefields, an analysis of the impacts on the Mound Springs, and future recommendations for the return of environmental flows and protection of the springs is presented. Received: 9 November 1998 · Accepted: 23 February 1999     

Hydrogeological behaviour of some fault zones in a carbonate aquifer of Southern Italy: an experimentally based model

Complex flow circulation patterns are likely to be present in fault‐controlled groundwater flow systems, such as carbonate aquifers. Nevertheless, not much information is available for faults in carbonates, and their hydrogeological behaviour is often neglected in conceptual and numerical models. The understanding of this aspect of subsurface fluid flow has been improved in a carbonate aquifer, where hydrogeological investigations at site scale demonstrated the existence of fault zones that act as barriers. The hydraulic conductivity of the fault core is as low as that of siliciclastic rocks that represent the regional aquitard of the carbonate aquifer. Despite the lower permeability, the fault zones allow a significant groundwater flowthrough and a good interdependence of piezometric heads upgradient and downgradient of the faults. Because of this discontinuous heterogeneity, the aquifer looks like a basins‐in‐series system, where seasonal springs can be detected along some fault zones, as a function of groundwater level fluctuations.     

A discussion of up-flow springs

Based on their genesis, springs are commonly classified as depression spring, contact spring, overflow spring and fault spring, etc. In addition, a kind of springs, i.e., up-flow spring, can be found in the field. An aquifer is overlain by poorly-permeable unconsolidated sediments or relatively impervious formations. If the hydraulic head of the aquifer is higher than the land surface, groundwater may flow up to the ground surface through the local portion of the overlying aquicludes where the permeability is relatively good, and emerges as an up-flow spring. The common characteristics of an up-flow spring are discussed and summarized in this paper, and some examples of the up-flow springs are also given. Up-flow springs can flow up through local permeable zones in the overlying aquicludes rather than permeable faults. Although they cannot be found as frequently as depression springs, contact springs, overflow springs and fault springs etc., yet up-flow springs may occur in the form of normal-temperature springs, hot springs and salt springs.     

Analysis of subsurface mound spring connectivity in shale of the western margin of the Great Artesian Basin, South Australia

Mound springs provide the primary discharge mechanism for waters of the western margin of the Great Artesian Basin (GAB), Australia. Though these springs are an important resource in an arid environment, their hydraulics as they discharge from shale are poorly defined. The springs can include extensive spring tails (groundwater-dependent wetlands) and hundreds of springs in a given spring complex. Electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) was used to evaluate spring subsurface hydraulic-connectivity characteristics at three spring complexes discharging through the Bulldog Shale. The results demonstrate that fresher GAB water appears as resistors in the subsurface at these sites, which are characterized by high-salinity conditions in the shallow subsurface. Using an empirical method developed for this work, the ERI data indicate that the spring complexes have multiple subsurface connections that are not always easily observed at the surface. The connections are focused along structural deformation in the shale allowing fluids to migrate through the confining unit. The ERI data suggest the carbonate deposits that the springs generate are deposited on top of the confining unit, not precipitated in the conduit. The data also suggest that spring-tail ecosystems are not the result of a single discharge point, but include secondary discharge points along the tail.     

浅循环泉简析

泉按照出露原因通常可以分为侵蚀泉、接触泉、溢流泉（溢出泉）和断层泉等。根据泉眼和地下水循环深度（或径流位置）的相对关系,泉可以分为表层泉、浅循环泉和深循环泉。地下水在地下流动(循环)的最深处仍然高于泉口,这类泉称为浅循环泉。浅循环泉出露的位置并不在地形最低处,其补给来源主要是大气降水入渗,地下水受到重力作用自高处往低处流动,在地下径流的途径短、时间短,流量一般不大。浅循环泉通常是常温泉、淡水泉（也有咸泉和盐泉）,多是常年性泉,也有部分是季节性泉或暂时性泉。广西北竂岭北坡泉和云南顺荡井盐泉是典型的浅循环泉。     

Unusual catchment runoff in a high alpine karst environment influenced by a complex geological setting (Northern Calcareous Alps,Tyrol, Austria)

Garber Schlag (Q-GS) is one of the major springs of the Karwendel Mountains, Tyrol, Austria. This spring has a unique runoff pattern that is mainly controlled by the tectonic setting. The main aquifer is a moderately karstified and jointed limestone of the Wetterstein Formation that is underlain by nonkarstified limestone of the Reifling Formation, which acts as an aquitard. The aquifer and aquitard of the catchment of spring Q-GS form a large anticline that is bound by a major fault (aquitard) to the north. Discharge of this spring shows strong seasonal variations with three recharge origins, based on δ¹⁸O and electrical conductivity values. A clear seasonal trend is observed, caused by the continuously changing portions of water derived from snowmelt, rainfall and groundwater. At the onset of the snowmelt period in May, the discharge is composed mainly of groundwater. During the maximum snowmelt period, the water is dominantly composed of water derived from snowmelt and subordinately from rainfall. During July and August, water derived from snowmelt continuously decreases and water derived from rainfall increases. During September and October, the water released at the spring is mainly derived from groundwater and subordinately from rainfall. The distinct discharge plateau from August to December and the following recession until March is likely related to the large regional groundwater body in the fissured and moderately karstified aquifer of the Wetterstein Formation and the tectonic structures (anticline, major fault). Only a small portion of the water released at spring Q-GS is derived from permafrost.

     

Mobile sediment in an urbanizing karst aquifer: implications for contaminant transport

 Here we investigate geochemical characteristics of sediment in different compartments of a karst aquifer and demonstrate that mobile sediments in a karst aquifer can exhibit a wide range of properties affecting their contaminant transport potential. Sediment samples were collected from surface streams, sinkholes, caves, wells, and springs of a karst aquifer (the Barton Springs portion of the Edwards (Balcones Fault Zone) Aquifer, Central Texas) and their mineralogy, grain-size distribution, organic carbon content, and specific surface area analyzed. Statistical analysis of the sediments separated the sampling sites into three distinct groups: (1) streambeds, sinkholes, and small springs; (2) wells; and (3) caves. Sediments from the primary discharge spring were a mix of these three groups. High organic carbon content and high specific surface area gives some sediments an increased potential to transport contaminants; the volume of these sediments is likely to increase with continued urbanization of the watershed. Received: 13 April 1998 · Accepted: 6 October 1998     

Review: The distribution,flow, and quality of Grand Canyon Springs,Arizona (USA)

An understanding of the hydrogeology of Grand Canyon National Park (GRCA) in northern Arizona, USA, is critical for future resource protection. The ~750 springs in GRCA provide both perennial and seasonal flow to numerous desert streams, drinking water to wildlife and visitors in an otherwise arid environment, and habitat for rare, endemic and threatened species. Spring behavior and flow patterns represent local and regional patterns in aquifer recharge, reflect the geologic structure and stratigraphy, and are indicators of the overall biotic health of the canyon. These springs, however, are subject to pressures from water supply development, changes in recharge from forest fires and other land management activities, and potential contamination. Roaring Springs is the sole water supply for residents and visitors (>6 million/year), and all springs support valuable riparian habitats with very high species diversity. Most springs flow from the karstic Redwall-Muav aquifer and show seasonal patterns in flow and water chemistry indicative of variable aquifer porosities, including conduit flow. They have Ca/Mg-HCO₃ dominated chemistry and trace elements consistent with nearby deep wells drilled into the Redwall-Muav aquifer. Tracer techniques and water-age dating indicate a wide range of residence times for many springs, supporting the concept of multiple porosities. A perched aquifer produces small springs which issue from the contacts between sandstone and shale units, with variable groundwater residence times. Stable isotope data suggest both an elevational and seasonal difference in recharge between North and South Rim springs. This review highlights the complex nature of the groundwater system.     

山西太原晋祠—兰村泉水复流的岩溶水文地质条件新认识

晋祠泉和兰村泉是山西著名的岩溶大泉,受自然条件变化和人类活动的影响,两个泉于20世纪末相继断流。针对山西省政府提出的要使晋祠、兰村泉水复流的生态修复目标任务,文章在泉域水文地质调查基础上,就泉水复流密切相关的四个关键性岩溶水文地质条件问题开展研究并提出了新认识。核实了目前划定的晋祠—兰村泉域边界,依据最新资料对现行的晋祠、兰村泉域边界提出了7处修正,修改后晋祠泉域面积由2 030 km2变为2 713 km2,兰村泉域面积由2 500 km2变为2 614 km2。汾河二库在蓄水后库区的主体部分划归到晋祠泉域而非兰村泉域,其渗漏补给是造成近年来晋祠泉域区域岩溶地下水位大幅回升的主要原因。确定了晋祠泉域内盘道—马家山断裂带是一个岩溶水强富水带,也是岩溶地下水从北部中、上寒武统含水岩组向南部中奥陶统含水岩组的转换带。圈定了晋祠泉域:玉门河南峪村—杜儿平煤矿东侧—官地矿与白家庄矿交界处—龙山—明仙村东—晋祠泉的岩溶地下水强径流带。这些认识是开展晋祠—兰村泉域岩溶地下水资源评价、地下水开发管理和保护的基础,更是制定晋祠、兰村泉水复流方案的重要依据。     

Deep groundwater circulation and associated methane leakage in the northern Canadian Rocky Mountains

Concern over potential impact of shale gas development on shallow groundwater systems requires greater understanding of crustal scale fluid movement. We examined natural deeply circulating groundwater systems in northeastern British Columbia adjacent to a region of shale gas development, in order to elucidate origin of waters, depths of circulation, and controls on fluid flow. These systems are expressed as thermal springs that occur in the deformed sedimentary rocks of the Liard Basin. Stable isotope data from these springs show that they originate as meteoric water. Although there are no thermal anomalies in the region, outlet temperatures range from 30 to 56 °C, reflecting depth of circulation. Based on aqueous geothermometry and geothermal gradients, circulation depths up to 3.8 km are estimated, demonstrating connection of deep groundwater systems to the surface. Springs are also characterised by leakage of thermogenic gas from deep strata that is partly attenuated by methanotrophic microbial communities in the spring waters. Springs are restricted to anomalous structural features, cross cutting faults, and crests of fault-cored anticlines. On a regional scale they are aligned with the major tectonic features of the Liard Line and Larsen Fault. This suggests that while connection of surface to deep reservoirs is possible, it is rare and restricted to highly deformed geologic units that produce permeable pathways from depth through otherwise thick intervening shale units. Results allow a better understanding of potential for communication between deep shale gas units and shallow aquifer systems.     

Hydrogeologic delineation of habitats for endangered species: the Comal Springs/River System

 We delineate 18 distinct habitats for the endangered fountain darter in the Comal Springs/River system based upon a combination of vegetative, geologic, and hydrologic criteria. Comal Springs are the largest natural discharge from the Edwards aquifer of central Texas; they issue along faults which penetrate the confined portion of the aquifer. The springs are the head of the Comal River which is an important economic and recreational resource to the local community. The spring/river system is the home of the fountain darter, a federally listed endangered species. Previous studies of this system were on a large scale and lacked detail necessary for characterization. The fountain darter and other fauna in the Comal Springs/River system are threatened by the possibility of diminished flows and the concomitant habitat change. The 18 habitats are defined by the dominant species of vegetation, the substrate, and the flow conditions. Human alterations and spring discharge control the morphology of the river and the substrates. Stream velocities determined substrate conditions and, thus indirectly, the distribution of vegetation and habitats. In this system, hydrochemical parameters were uniform as were the soils adjacent to the stream; these factors were not important to the habitat delineation. The range of stream velocities necessary to maintain the habitats can be estimated with the Hjulstrom diagram. The darters were associated with a number of these habitats. We surmise that significant alteration of the system's habitats will occur if discharge conditions change. Received: 22 January 1996 · Accepted: 4 March 1996     

典型背斜槽谷区岩溶水资源空间分布格局与水质特征——以宜居河流域为例

文章选取典型背斜槽谷区——宜居河流域作为研究对象,结合不同水文地质单元对流域岩溶泉进行出露特征及水质分析,研究结果表明:(1) 二叠系、三叠系含水层的调查泉点水化学类型全部属于HCO3-Ca型水,而寒武系、奥陶系含水层部分泉点属于HCO3·SO4-Ca型水,这可能与该地区的岩性及人类活动有关;流域内93.8%的岩溶泉点水质等级为优良和良好,可作为饮用水源;(2)流域内岩溶泉流量<10 L·s-1的岩溶泉数量占78%,平均流量仅为0.84 L·s-1;流量≥10 L·s-1的岩溶大泉平均流量达76.56 L·s-1;此外,发现不同岩性地层在岩溶泉发育的数量和流量上皆有差异,表现出岩溶泉发育的极不均一性;(3) 在可溶岩与非可溶岩接触带、断裂构造带、陡崖处、地势较低的弱承压泄流区、深切河谷及峡谷两侧切割处5类地点易出露岩溶泉。      

Comparison of age distributions estimated from environmental tracers by using binary-dilution and numerical models of fractured and folded karst: Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and West Virginia, USA

Measured concentrations of environmental tracers in spring discharge from a karst aquifer in the Shenandoah Valley, USA, were used to refine a numerical groundwater flow model. The karst aquifer is folded and faulted carbonate bedrock dominated by diffuse flow along fractures. The numerical model represented bedrock structure and discrete features (fault zones and springs). Concentrations of ³H, ³He, ⁴He, and CFC-113 in spring discharge were interpreted as binary dilutions of young (0–8  years) water and old (tracer-free) water. Simulated mixtures of groundwater are derived from young water flowing along shallow paths, with the addition of old water flowing along deeper paths through the model domain that discharge to springs along fault zones. The simulated median age of young water discharged from springs (5.7  years) is slightly older than the median age estimated from ³H/³He data (4.4  years). The numerical model predicted a fraction of old water in spring discharge (0.07) that was half that determined by the binary-dilution model using the ³H/³He apparent age and ³H and CFC-113 data (0.14). This difference suggests that faults and lineaments are more numerous or extensive than those mapped and included in the numerical model.     

贵州印江朗溪岩溶槽谷龙洞湾泉流量衰减分析

文章对贵州省印江县朗溪隔槽式向斜岩溶槽谷轴面南东侧的龙洞湾岩溶泉流量衰减规律进行了分析,通过在泉口设置复合堰、安放水文气象自动监测仪,获取了该泉降雨量和相对水位的高时间分辨率监测数据,并采用水力学公式计算了泉流量,分析了降雨过后岩溶泉流量的动态特征,再利用分区间指数函数衰减方程确定了该泉所在含水介质的结构特征及亚储水量,结果发现:（1）龙洞湾泉流量峰值滞后时间受降雨过程特征影响较大,当降雨量大或前期有降雨影响时,滞后时间短;当降雨量小或前期无降雨影响时,滞后时间长;（2）强降雨后,龙洞湾泉流量的衰减可分为三个亚动态,且衰减系数的差异较大,第I亚动态和第II亚动态的衰减系数分别是第III亚动态的11倍和3倍,这表明其三重岩溶含水介质的特征明显;（3）龙洞湾泉的含水介质具有不均匀性,以管道流和裂隙流为主,岩溶发育强烈。      

Karst groundwater management by defining protection zones based on regional geological structures and groundwater flow fields

In a semiarid region, the karst aquifer generally forms a large groundwater reservoir that can play an important role in regional water supply. But because of the specific physical properties of karst aquifers, they are vulnerable to pollution and anthropogenic impacts. Karst groundwater management strategies are vital. As representative of karst springs in a semiarid area, Niangziguan Springs is located in the east of Shanxi Province, China with an annual average rate of discharge of 10.34 m³/s (1956–2003) (Y. Liang, unpublished data). The Niangziguan Spring Basin covers an area of 7,394 km² with an annual average precipitation of 535 mm (1958–2003) (Hao et al. in Carsologica Sinica 23(1):43–47, 2004). Over the past three decades, accelerated groundwater exploitation has caused water-table decline in the aquifer, reduction of the spring discharge, and deterioration of water quality. In this study, three protection zones were defined to ensure the quality and capacity of this resource. The confluence of the 11 spring systems and the discharge areas were defined as I protection zone, the recharge basin was II protection zone, and the slack water area where there is little surface recharge was the III protection zone. Management strategies for each zone were suggested and evaluated to provide a scientific foundation for sustainable utilization.     

涞源北盆地地下水氢氧同位素特征及北海泉形成模式

拒马源泉群作为拒马河的源头,受到了较多专家和学者的关注。但这些研究多集中在地下水的水化学、水位动态、泉流量等特征上,对地下水氢氧同位素特征的分析几乎没有,且对北海泉的成因解释多为粗略的定性概述。为了说明涞源北盆地地下水的氢氧同位素特征,详细揭示北海泉的形成模式,首次系统地采集了不同含水岩组的地下水样品,测定了水样的氢氧同位素组分。结果表明:样品点δD和δ18O值均落在区域大气降水线上或附近,大气降水是研究区地下水的主要补给来源;白云岩、灰岩含水岩组高程效应较明显,径流途径长,松散含水层径流途径短,受蒸发作用较强;白云岩、灰岩含水岩组和松散含水层氘盈余d值分别为6.0‰～11.6‰、4.2‰～11.2‰、3.8‰～8.0‰,较大气降水大部分偏小,表明岩溶水和松散孔隙水经历了不同的流动过程;白云岩、灰岩含水岩组从补给区向排泄区各自流动过程中,在小西庄、香炉屯村附近断裂带发生沟通混合,然后在向盆地中心径流过程中受断层阻水上升,上升过程中又接受了松散孔隙水的补给,最后在松散岩层中出露成泉,形成北海泉。在孔隙水混入前,两者的平均补给比例大约为48.4%～57.6%和42.4%～51.6%。     

Characterization of karst conduits by tracer tests for an artificial recharge scheme

Challenged by rapidly changing climate in combination with an increase in anthropogenic pressures, karst groundwater resources in the Old Town of Lijiang (OTLJ), SW China, are diminishing. Higher frequency and longer duration of dried-up periods have been observed at the Heilongtan Park (HP) Springs in recent years. Thus, there is an urgent need for an artificial recharge scheme, aimed at replenishing groundwater in the aquifer and increasing the outflow of the springs to ensure effective water resources management. Evaluation of the scheme feasibility, prior to its implementation, is important. In this study, tracer tests were conducted between the recharge area and receiving springs in order to gain insight into the transport mechanisms of karst groundwater and the structural characteristics of the aquifer. Multiple underground flow paths, exhibiting high conductivity between the recharge area and HP Springs, were revealed by the interpretation of tracer breakthrough curves. Three springs considered as the leakages of the scheme were identified. Moreover, the outflow of springs at HP and OTLJ were predicted to be increased by the artificially recharged water after 9.2 and 12.5 days, respectively. Quantitative analysis of tracer recoveries demonstrates that the springs to be recharged and the springs considered as leakages, respectively, share 45 and 55% of the increased outflow. The feasibility of the scheme has been confirmed by the tracer tests. This report provides references for the evaluation of artificial groundwater recharge and protection strategies, particularly in large and poorly investigated karst spring fields.

     

The relationship between the water table and the surface flow of a losing stream, lower Medano Creek, Great Sand Dunes National Monument, Colorado

 Proposed groundwater withdrawals in the San Luis Valley of Colorado may lower the water table in Great Sand Dunes National Monument. In response, the National Park Service initiated a study that has produced a generalized conceptual model of the hydrologic system in order to assess whether a lowering of the water table might decrease the surface flow of lower Medano Creek. Based upon information obtained during the drilling of several boreholes, there appear to be five important hydrostratigraphic units underlying lower Medano Creek within the upper 30 m of the ground surface: 1. a perched aquifer overlying an aquitard located between about 5 and 6 m below the ground surface; 2. the aquitard itself; 3. an unconfined aquifer located between the upper and lower aquitards; 4. an aquitard located between about 27 and 29 m below the ground surface; and 5. a confined underlying the lower aquitard. Because the areal extent of the aquitards cannot be determined from the borehole data, a detailed conceptual model of the hydrogeologic system underlying lower Medano Creek cannot be developed. However, a generalized conceptual model can be envisioned that consists of a complex system of interlayered aquifers and leaky aquitards, with each aquifer having a unique hydraulic head. Water levels in the perched aquifer rise rapidly to their annual maximum levels in response to the arrival of the flow terminus of Medano Creek during the spring runoff event, and the location of the flow terminus is directly dependent upon the discharge of the creek. Water levels in the deeper, non-perched aquifers do not appear to fluctuate significantly in response to the arrival of the flow terminus, demonstrating that it is unlikely that the proposed groundwater withdrawals will decrease the surface flow of lower Medano Creek. Received: 27 December 1995 · Accepted: 20 February 1996     

Detecting inter-aquifer leakage in areas with limited data using hydraulics and multiple environmental tracers,including <Superscript>4</Superscript>He, <Superscript>36</Superscript>Cl/Cl, <Superscript>14</Superscript>C and <Superscript>87</Superscript>Sr/<Superscript>86</Superscript>Sr

The investigation of regionally extensive groundwater systems in remote areas is hindered by a shortage of data due to a sparse observation network, which limits our understanding of the hydrogeological processes in arid regions. The study used a multidisciplinary approach to determine hydraulic connectivity between the Great Artesian Basin (GAB) and the underlying Arckaringa Basin in the desert region of Central Australia. In order to manage the impacts of groundwater abstraction from the Arckaringa Basin, it is vital to understand its connectivity with the GAB (upper aquifer), as the latter supports local pastoral stations and groundwater-dependent springs with unique endemic flora and fauna. The study is based on the collation of available geological information, a detailed analysis of hydraulic data, and data on environmental tracers. Enhanced inter-aquifer leakage in the centre of the study area was identified, as well as recharge to the GAB from ephemeral rivers and waterholes. Throughout the rest of the study area, inter-aquifer leakage is likely controlled by diffuse inter-aquifer leakage, but the coarse spatial resolution means that the presence of additional enhanced inter-aquifer leakage sites cannot be excluded. This study makes the case that a multi-tracer approach along with groundwater hydraulics and geology provides a tool-set to investigate enhanced inter-aquifer leakage even in a groundwater basin with a paucity of data. A particular problem encountered in this study was the ambiguous interpretation of different age tracers, which is attributed to diffusive transport across flow paths caused by low recharge rates.     

济南岩溶泉域泉群区水化学与环境同位素研究

本文通过对济南岩溶泉域排泄区地下水样品的分析,采用主要离子(Cl、NO_3、Mg、Ca、HCO_3、SO_4)、微量元素(Br、Ba、Sr)、氢氧同位素(~2H和~(18)O)、硫同位素(~(34)S)等示踪因子的综合研究方法,结合岩溶泉域实际水文地质条件,揭示了济南泉水的水文地球化学特征、枯丰期水化学动态和环境同位素特征,确定了泉水在枯、丰水期不同的补给来源及补给途径。研究显示,泉群区出流的泉水可以分为三组,黑虎泉出流的路径是经奥陶系灰岩直接出流,趵突泉是经奥陶系灰岩与第四系沉积层出流地表,而五龙潭泉、珍珠泉和53号井则是在灰岩和侵入岩体的接触地带及第四系沉积层较薄弱处涌出地表;在丰水期地下水是混合补给,包括来自奥陶系岩溶水直接补给和硅酸盐岩裂隙水的间接补给,而在枯水期地下水主要由奥陶系岩溶水直接补给;泉群区地下水中的S主要来源于燃煤,而且有不断增加的趋势。