森林冠层影响降雪截留过程的研究进展

森林冠层对降雪的截留和冠层截留雪的蒸发/升华、散落释放、融化滴落等过程显著影响了北方森林区域的水文循环,开展森林冠层对降雪截留过程影响的研究对于季节性积雪森林区域的气候变化、森林经营、森林火灾以及植被演替具有重要的科学意义。对当前的森林冠层影响降雪截留过程的观测方法和理论机制进行了深入探讨和总结,并针对现有研究中缺乏林分尺度和水平过程的研究等问题,提出了引入遥感技术等先进的研究方法以及开展多尺度、多过程和多因素的交叉研究是今后研究中的重点方向。     

次网格积雪参数化在祁连山区斑状积雪带模拟中的应用

运用中尺度大气模式MM5,积雪参数化分别采用简单的积雪参数化方案以及考虑次网格积雪分布和雪密度变化的复杂积雪参数化方案,对黑河流域上游祁连站附近气温和降水进行模拟,与祁连站的观测值对比,检验积雪参数化方案中次网格积雪分布和雪密度变化在该地区气温和降水模拟中的作用.结果表明:简单积雪方案对网格积雪的非0即1描述在斑状积雪带是不合理的,尤其在黑河流域海拔3 300 m以下积雪多为斑状或片状,网格内积雪非均匀性的处理是非常必要的;通过耦合简单和复杂积雪方案的大气模式对气温模拟和观测值比较发现,新方案模拟的气温比旧方案模拟值更接近观测值,在气温低于0℃时改进尤其明显,说明使用复杂积雪/融雪方案可改进斑状积雪带气温的模拟.耦合复杂积雪方案的大气模式模拟的降水与观测值绝对误差低于耦合简单积雪方案模拟结果,复杂积雪方案的模拟结果降水错报率为使用简单积雪方案结果的一半,证明了耦合复杂积雪方案可以提高大气模式对该地区春季降水模拟的准确性.与积雪面积变化相对应,耦合复杂积雪方案模拟出了融雪产流量,而使用简单积雪方案则没有模拟出来.综上所述,耦合考虑次网格积雪分布和雪密度变化的复杂积雪参数化方案比耦合“非0即1”积雪方案可以更准确地模拟祁连山区冬、春季气温和降水.     

积雪和有机质土对青藏高原冻土活动层的影响

随着全球气候变暖,青藏高原冻土活动层正在逐渐加深,为了理解积雪和表层有机质土壤对冻土活动层的影响机理,一维水热耦合模型CoupModel被用于模拟气象驱动下土壤冻融的动态过程.基于祁连山冰沟和青藏高原唐古拉站长期监测数据,CoupModel模型被成功的率定和验证.在冰沟站验证的模型被用于研究积雪对冻土活动层的影响,结果显示:目前较浅积雪情景(雪深＜20 cm)比完全忽略积雪的情景模拟的冬季土壤冻结深度深,说明青藏高原现状下较浅的积雪有利于冻土发育.原因是雪面较高的反照率造成地表吸收的太阳辐射减少,导致雪面温度较低,加之浅雪的阻热性能又较小,综合导致浅雪覆盖时表层土壤向大气释放的能量增加.但随着积雪深度逐渐增加,模拟的冬季土壤冻结深度反而越来越浅,说明较厚的积雪(＞20 cm的雪深)并不利于冻土的发育,主要是雪相对于空气低的热传导隔绝了表层土壤向大气的热损失.在唐古拉站验证的模型被用于研究有机质土对冻土活动层的影响,结果显示:随着有机质土壤深度增加,模拟的活动层夏季融化深度逐渐较小.有机质土壤较矿物质土壤低的热传导和高的热容性质减少了下伏土壤热状况对太阳辐射和气温波动的响应,说明有机质土有利于冻土的保护.     

天山西部季节性积雪密度及含水率的特性分析

利用Snow Fork雪特性分析仪采集积雪物理特性(积雪深度、积雪密度、体积含水率)数据,分析了天山积雪雪崩站稳定积雪期和非稳定积雪期雪物理特性的时间变化特征及其在垂直剖面上的廓线分布.结果表明: 1)稳定期积雪深度随时间缓慢减小,体积含水率垂直廓线随积雪深度变化呈单峰曲线,峰值距雪表面约33 cm,雪密度垂直廓线为中部大、积雪表层和底部较小;2) 非稳定积雪期积雪迅速沉陷,体积含水率相对于雪层温度的变化有滞后效应,滞后时间约为2 h,雪密度垂直廓线与稳定期相同.整个非稳定积雪期的日平均雪密度与日平均含水率、日平均温度均呈显著正相关.     

天山西部季节性积雪密度及含水率的特性分析

利用Snow Fork雪特性分析仪采集积雪物理特性(积雪深度、积雪密度、体积含水率)数据,分析了天山积雪雪崩站稳定积雪期和非稳定积雪期雪物理特性的时间变化特征及其在垂直剖面上的廓线分布.结果表明:1)稳定期积雪深度随时间缓慢减小,体积含水率垂直廓线随积雪深度变化呈单峰曲线,峰值距雪表面约33cm,雪密度垂直廓线为中部大、积雪表层和底部较小;2)非稳定积雪期积雪迅速沉陷,体积含水率相对于雪层温度的变化有滞后效应,滞后时间约为2h,雪密度垂直廓线与稳定期相同.整个非稳定积雪期的日平均雪密度与日平均含水率、日平均温度均呈显著正相关.     

辽宁省积雪对自动气象站观测地气温差的影响

利用1971—2016年辽宁省61个气象站气温、地表温度、积雪日数和积雪深度资料,分析了积雪的保温作用及其对地气温差的影响。结果表明：更换自动站前后地表温度观测方式的差异导致地气温差显著增大,地气温差的增大程度受所在区域积雪日数、积雪深度的影响显著。在积雪期较长、积雪较厚的地区,积雪引起反照率增大,使得雪面温度降低,导致雪气温差减小,而雪的保温作用使得地气温差显著增大。因此,更换自动站前地（雪）气温差与积雪日数呈显著负相关,而更换自动站后地气温差与积雪日数呈显著正相关。各台站之间地气温差随积雪深度的变化系数差异较大,为0.045~0.858 ℃?cm^-1,在年平均积雪日数＜40 d、年平均极端积雪深度＜10 cm的区域,积雪的保温作用随积雪深度增大而显著增大;在年平均积雪日数＞40 d、年平均极端积雪深度＞10 cm的区域,10 cm以下的积雪对土壤保温作用随积雪深度增大显著,当积雪深度＞10 cm后,其保温作用随积雪深度增大的幅度明显减小。     

天山季节性积雪稳定期雪密度与积累速率的观测分析

利用Snow Fork雪特性分析仪测量的天山积雪雪崩站2009年2月21-26日及2010年1月26-31日雪特性数据,分析了季节性积雪稳定期内积雪垂直剖面密度的变化特征及其随降雪沉积时间和雪层深度的变化规律.结果表明:季节性积雪稳定期内,积雪剖面密度中部最大,表层和底层密度较低;新雪层密度随时间的推移增加速率逐渐增大...     

气候模式中积雪覆盖率参数化方案的对比研究

利用基于NCEP再分析的近地面气候资料驱动陆面过程模型NCAR CLM3,检验了6种积雪覆盖率参数化方案(CLM3、Douville1995、Roesch2001、Wu2004、Yang1997、Niu2007)模拟的积雪覆盖率的季节变化,并与NOAA AVHRR得到的观测结果进行了对比分析.结果表明,在NCARCLM3的物理过程框架之下,CLM3、Douville1995、Roesch2001三种方案低估了广大地区的积雪覆盖率,模拟的雪线位置偏北,尤其是在秋季积雪初期;Wu2004方案低估了秋季欧亚大陆的积雪覆盖率;Yang1997方案模拟的积雪覆盖率有些偏高,尤其是在积雪覆盖区的南部边缘;考虑积雪密度变化的Niu2007方案一定程度上克服了Yang1997方案的正偏差.春季末期,6种方案模拟的雪线位置都偏北.在地形比较平缓的地区,Niu2007方案的整体效果最好.观测和模拟的积雪覆盖率的出现频数大部分集中在低(小于0.2)和高(大于0.8)覆盖率等级,中等覆盖率所占比例很少.     

新疆北部地区季节性积雪密度变化特征分析

选取新疆北部地区季节性积雪期的定点站和典型区域,应用北疆20个气象站点观测资料和使用便携式测雪仪(Snow Fork),在不同地域、不同雪层和不同时间进行观测与测量,并且在积雪稳定期中的一次降雪过程对新雪密度变化过程中影响它的诸多因子进行观测,对新疆北部地区冬季季节性积雪密度变化特征进行的观测和分析.结果表明:雪面辐射热量和雪层内温度梯度对积雪密度起主要作用,变化主要是通过雪层内深霜和粗粒雪层的温度减小而实现的;在隆冬期全层积雪密度最大的为深霜层,入春2月下旬回暖期以后,由于雪层含水率的增加,季节性积雪密度最大层则为粒雪层.     

基于CMIP6气候模式的新疆积雪深度时空格局研究

积雪深度的变化对地表水热平衡起着至关重要的作用。选用了国际耦合模式比较计划第六阶段（CMIP6）中目前情景比较齐全的五个全球气候模式,通过对比新疆地区1979—2014年积雪深度长时间序列数据集,评估了气候模式在新疆地区模拟积雪深度的模拟能力,接着预估了未来不同SSPs-RCPs情景下新疆地区在2021—2040年（近期）、2041—2060年（中期）、2081—2100年（末期）相对于基准期（1995—2014年）的积雪深度变化。气温和降水对积雪深度变化有着重要的影响,因此还分析了新疆地区到21世纪末期气温和降水的变化趋势。结果表明：订正后的气候模式模拟的积雪深度数据与观测数据的相关系数均达到0.8以上,其中1月至3月与观测数据的结果更为吻合。气候模式基本上能够反映积雪深度年内变化的基本特征,气候模式模拟的积雪深度空间分布和观测数据具有相似的特征。气温和降水在未来不同情景下均会波动上升,其中气温的增幅相对比较明显,达0.43 ℃·（10a）^-1,而降水的增幅为0.63 mm·（10a）^-1,新疆未来的气候总体上呈现出变暖变湿的趋势。新疆地区的平均积雪深度在未来不同时期相对基准期均呈增加的趋势。SSP1-1.9情景下,21世纪近期、中期和末期北部大部分地区的积雪深度将会有所增加;SSP1-2.6情景下,北部阿尔泰山地区的积雪深度在21世纪近期有所减小,但中期和末期将会有所增加;SSP2-4.5情景下,21世纪不同时期东部地区的积雪深度将会有所增加,北部和中部大部分地区在不同时期积雪深度将会变小;SSP3-7.0情景下,21世纪不同时期北部和西南地区的积雪深度将会普遍变小,东部地区的积雪深度将普遍增加;SSP4-3.4和SSP4-6.0情景下,21世纪不同时期西南昆仑山地区的积雪深度将会普遍变小,东部地区的积雪深度将普遍增加;SSP5-8.5情景下,北部阿尔泰山地区和东部地区的积雪深度将普遍增加。     

A comparison of winter mercury accumulation at forested and no-canopy sites measured with different snow sampling techniques

Atmospheric mercury (Hg) is delivered to ecosystems via rain, snow, cloud/fog, and dry deposition. The importance of snow, especially snow that has passed through the forest canopy (throughfall), in delivering Hg to terrestrial ecosystems has received little attention in the literature. The snowpack is a dynamic system that links atmospheric deposition and ecosystem cycling through deposition and emission of deposited Hg. To examine the magnitude of Hg delivery via snowfall, and to illuminate processes affecting Hg flux to catchments during winter (cold season), Hg in snow in no-canopy areas and under forest canopies measured with four collection methods were compared: (1) Hg in wet precipitation as measured by the Mercury Deposition Network (MDN) for the site in Acadia National Park, Maine, USA, (2) event throughfall (collected after snowfall cessation for accumulations of >8 cm), (3) season-long throughfall collected using the same apparatus for event sampling but deployed for the entire cold season, and (4) snowpack sampling. Estimates (mean ± SE) of Hg deposition using these methods during the 91-day cold season in 2004–2005 at conifer sites showed that season-long throughfall Hg flux (1.80 μg/m²) < snowpack Hg (2.38 ± 0.68 μg/m²) < event throughfall flux (5.63 ± 0.38 μg/m²). Mercury deposition at the MDN site (0.91 μg/m²) was similar to that measured at other no-canopy sites in the area using the other methods, but was 3.4 times less than was measured under conifer canopies using the event sampling regime. This indicates that snow accumulated under the forest canopy received Hg from the overstory or exhibited less re-emission of Hg deposited in snow relative to open areas. The soil surface of field-scale plots were sprayed with a natural rain water sample that contained an Hg tracer (²⁰²Hg) just prior to the first snowfall to explore whether some snowpack Hg might be explained from soil emissions. The appearance of the ²⁰²Hg tracer in the snowpack (0–64% of the total Hg mass in the snowpack) suggests that movement of Hg from the soil into the snowpack is possible. However, as with any tracer study the ²⁰²Hg tracer may not precisely represent the reactivity and mobility of natural Hg in soils.     

Influence of temperate mixed and deciduous tree covers on Hg concentrations and photoredox transformations in snow

Mercury dynamics in snowpacks under forested canopy are currently unknown, even though these snowpacks may represent important Hg pools eventually released towards lakes at snowmelt. We followed Hg distribution and partitioning in snowpacks under different temperate canopy types over space and time, and conducted short-term experiments on Hg redox behaviour in these snowpacks. Hg concentrations were ca. two times higher in snow deposited under coniferous than deciduous canopies; the lowest concentrations were observed in snow over a frozen lake in the same watershed. In snow on the ground, up to 80% of the Hg was bound to particles between 10 and 70 μm. Incubations of snow in situ showed that (i) Hg photoreduction and evasion was significant in open areas (lake surface) but was greatly hampered by light attenuation under winter canopies and (ii) oxidation of newly produced Hg⁰ was a significant process in boreal snow, affecting Hg evasion to the atmosphere. We used a mass balance approach to compare Hg pools in snowpacks with wet deposition measured by precipitation collectors. A net gain of Hg was observed in snow under mixed canopies whereas, under a deciduous canopy, the pool of Hg stored at the end of the winter was comparable to that of wet deposition. Snow over lake acted as a winter source of Hg. Whereas most Hg deposited by snow on lakes is lost before snowmelt, Hg deposited on the forested watershed is largely retained in snowpacks, presenting a threat to systems receiving meltwaters.     

Mercury distribution, partitioning and speciation in coastal vs. inland High Arctic snow

Atmospheric mercury deposition on snow at springtime has been reported in polar regions, potentially posing a threat to coastal and inland ecosystems receiving meltwaters. However, the post-depositional fate of Hg in snow is not well known, and no data are available on Hg partitioning in polar snow. During snowmelt, we conducted a survey of Hg concentrations, partitioning and speciation in surface snow and at depth, over sea ice and over land along a 100 km transect across Cornwallis Island, NU, Canada. Total Hg concentrations [THg] in surface snow were low (less than 20 pmol L⁻¹) and were significantly higher in marine vs. inland environments. Particulate Hg in surface snow represented up to 90% of total Hg over sea ice and up to 59% over land. At depth, [THg] at the snow/sea ice interface (up to 300 pmol L⁻¹) were two orders of magnitude higher than at the snow/lake ice interface (ca. 2.5 pmol L⁻¹). Integrated snow columns, sampled over sea-ice and over land, showed that particulate Hg was mostly bound to particles ranging from 0.45 to 2.7 μm. Moreover, melting snowpacks over sea ice and over lake ice contribute to increase [THg] at the water/ice interfaces. This study indicates that, at the onset of snowmelt, most of the Hg in snow is in particulate form, particularly over sea ice. Low Hg levels in surface snow suggest that Hg deposited through early spring deposition events is partly lost to the atmosphere from the snowpack before snowmelt. The sea ice/snow interface may constitute a site for Hg accumulation, however. Further understanding of the cycling of mercury at the sea ice/snow and sea ice/seawater interfaces is thus warranted to fully understand how mercury enters the arctic food webs.     

Two-phase Numerical Model of Powder Avalanche Theory and Application

In this paper the powder snow avalanche is considered as a two-phase flow (air and snow particles). The equations governing this flow are the fluid mechanics conservation laws. The mass and the momentum conservation are considered for each phase. The interaction between the two phases takes into account the drag force between the particle and the air. Owing to high turbulence in the powder flow, a closure model was used based on a modified k - model in order to take into account the reduction of turbulence energy by the particles. The dense avalanche is modeled using the shallow water equations. The formation and the development of the powder avalanche is modeled using a mass and momentum exchanges between the powder flow and the dense flow. The flow area is digitized horizontally and vertically using a finite elements mesh. The numerical scheme is obtained by integrating the equations on each cell. The model thus built was calibrated using laboratory measurements of density current carried out in a flume. The model was successfully applied to reproduce many avalanches observed in France. At the end of this paper, an application of this model to an engineering case study is presented. It concerns the Uzengili path where an avalanche occurred in 1993. In this paper we use the integrated dense/powder avalanche model to define the effect of a powder avalanche flow in this path. Different simulations allow display of maps of the exposed zones for different available snow depths in the starting zone. The results were mapped in terms of dynamic pressure field and recommendations are proposed to the local authorities.     

寒区公路风吹雪害的融雪侵蚀破坏机理研究

以寒区公路路基作为研究对象,采用与天然老的细粒雪密度相似的麸皮作为模型雪,通过室内风洞试验研究雪粒子的起动以及沿路基不同部位堆积和积蚀的过程,确定雪粒子沿路基坡面堆积区域与路基断面之间的关系．通过FLAC数值模拟,考察融雪径流对路基的侵蚀作用;引入融雪侵蚀面积率,研究了融雪侵蚀面积率随融雪量、土体饱和度、路基边坡坡率以...     

基于MODIS数据的东北地区积雪覆盖率估算

东北地区是我国三大积雪区之一,森林覆盖面积占总面积的40%左右。受森林冠层的影响,当前的MODIS雪盖产品（V6）提供的积雪覆盖率标准模型对东北地区积雪覆盖率估算结果存在明显的低估现象。基于此,采用分区建模的方式：在森林地区,计算归一化差值林地积雪指数（NDFSI）,建立像元积雪覆盖率（FSC）与NDFSI及NDVI之间的线性关系;在非森林地区,采用MOD10A1 V6提供的归一化差值积雪指数（NDSI）,建立像元积雪覆盖率（FSC）与NDSI及NDVI之间的线性关系。采用Landsat 8 OLI数据提取的积雪覆盖率（FSC）对分区建模的估算结果与标准模型的估算结果进行对比,发现进行估算的过程中均方根误差和平均绝对误差这两项指标的数值相对于标准模型有了大幅下降,这一结果在林区有更显著的表现。计算得到的决定系数R²,在本文模型也有提高。以T1林区影像为例,本文模型的均方根误差和平均绝对误差分别为0.246、0.055,而标准模型的两项指标则分别为0.420、0.348。本文模型和标准模型的决定系数分别为0.675、0.641。     

Wind tunnel experimental study on shed tunnels to prevent and control blowing snow on highways北大核心CSCD

There is a severe phenomenon of blowing snow by wind in winter in Mayitas area of Xinjiang. Road traffic interruptions and casualties caused by wind and snow disasters often occur. The existing engineering measures can alleviate the problems of low visibility and problems with accumulating snow on pavement caused by wind and snow to a certain extent, but cannot completely eliminate the impact. Aiming at the problem that the blowing snow disaster difficult to be completely cured under strong wind conditions, a shed tunnel engineering treatment scheme is proposed, and a wind tunnel simulation experiment is carried out on the shed tunnel form and snow prevention scheme at the entrance of the tunnel. The wind tunnel experimental section is 8 m long, 1. 3 m horizontally wide and 1 m high. The shed tunnel model is made by 1:60 scale 3D printing method, the snow barrier model is made of wooden strips, and the simulation medium is made of fine sand, refined salt and sawdust. Firstly, three kinds of shed structures, including fully enclosed, overhanging and ventilated, were simulated under the condition of 90° wind direction, and compared with the form of blowing snow stacking. Three parameters for similarity were used:density, particle size and stacking shape. The similarity is determined by weighted Euclidean distance between simulation medium and blowing snow, the similarity of the slump angle of the predecessors is verified, and the most suitable medium for simulating blowing snow is deduced. According to the experimental results, combined with the actual situation of wind blowing and snow disasters in Mayitas, flow field of the closed shed tunnel by a wind direction angle of 30° has been separately conducted with or without protective measures. The results show that when the wind tunnel stacking experiment is used to study the deposition state of blowing snow under non-low temperature conditions, the sawdust has good similarity with the blowing snow in the process of wind and snow movement. A large amount of medium was poured into the ventilated shed during the experiment, which proved that its anti-wind and snow performance was not ideal. By contrast, the closed shed and the overhanging shed have better wind and snow prevention effects. The snow barrier has a good blowing snow inhibition function at the entrance. From the stacking experiment, in the comparison with and without snow barrier, volume of the medium in the shed is very different, which proves that the snow barrier can effectively prevent the blowing snow from entering the shed. Among them, the difference in wind speed inside and outside the shed is obvious, which proves that snow barrier can significantly reduce the wind speed outside the shed and has the function of inhibiting the formation of weak wind areas inside the shed. The study has confirmed that the shed tunnel project with suitable snow barrier layout plan for tunnel entrance protection is an effective means to control wind and snow disasters. For highway traffic in Xinjiang, it is a feasible solution to use shed tunnel engineering to control blowing snow disasters. After dealing with the snow deposition at the entrance of shed tunnel, the shed tunnel engineering form of low-cost environment integration and the vehicle operation safety guarantee measures of long-distance shed tunnel are the problems that need to be solved in the future. © 2022 Tianjin Press of Chinese Herbal Medicines. All rights reserved.     

多沙河流的非恒定一维水沙数学模型及其应用

介绍多沙河流上非恒定一维水沙数学模型采用网格上流量与水位交错布置的方案,应用Total Variation Diminishing(TVD)格式求解基本方程,模型具有守恒性好、无虚假振荡、算法简单的优点,克服了断面急剧变化时计算容易失稳的困难。同时,由于采用了适合于多沙河流的泥沙运动基本方程及相关参数,因此,该一维模型能够适应多沙河流高浓度输沙及大幅度冲淤变化的特征,成功模拟了黄河干、支流上的洪水传播。     

Investigation on Snow Characteristics and Their Distribution in China

The background, scientific objective, investigation contents and scheme of project “Investigation on snow characteristics and their distribution in China” was introduced in this paper. The general objective of the investigation is to build comprehensive and systematic database of snow characteristics in China, at the service of providing data for the climate change, water resource and snow disaster studies. The investigation will be performed on the three fields including the compilation of historical data, in situ measurement of snow characteristics in the typical regions, and investigation of snow characteristics using remote sensing methods. For the compilation of historical data, the historical snow data from the meteorological stations and research institutes will be firstly collected, and then they will be compiled based on a standard rule. In situ observation will be performed at point, line and area-scale on the typical regions which include Northeast region, Xinjiang Degion, and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The observation content will contain snow depth, snow density, snow water equivalent, snow particle shape, hardness of snowpack surface, liquid water content, grain size, snow temperature, snow/soil temperature, dielectric constant, and some chemical parameters. These snow characteristics are the priority information used for the modification of retrieval algorithm on snow parameters. Remote sensing methods will be used to build long-time series of snow cover, snow albedo and snow water equivalent datasets based on these modified algorithms. Finally, the snow characteristics from both in situ and remote sensing investigation will be used to classify snow types in China, and produce distribution maps of snow characteristic and other thematic maps.     

Slope hummock development, Fosheim Peninsula, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada

Slope hummocks, a type of nonsorted patterned ground, are composed of stratified, organic, silty sand, and develop through the interaction of niveo-eolian deposition, solifluction, slopewash, and vegetation growth. Fields of hummocks show consistent patterns: forms on convex slopes increase in height downslope until the channel is reached, whereas those on convexo-concave slopes increase on the upper convexity but are buried by niveo-eolian deposition downslope of the snowbank remnant. These trends can be reproduced using a simple numerical model based on measured slope and snow depth profiles, sediment concentrations in the snow and solifluction rates. The model indicates that hummocks transit slopes of 20-40 m in about 2-4 ka, a time-frame that is plausible given site emergence, measured rates of solifluction, and published dates for organic horizons within hummocks on northern Ellesmere Island. Sensitivity analyses show that long-term effect of climate warming on hummock heights may differ depending on whether it is accompanied by precipitation increase or decrease. The required combination of two-sided freezing to promote plug-like movement, incomplete vegetation cover and thin snow that enable eolian erosion during winter and spring, and vegetation growth in snow-bed sites to stabilize niveo-eolian deposits may explain why these forms are important regionally but apparently are not present throughout the Arctic.