NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT ON THE SEASONAL VARIATION OF GLOBAL OCEAN AND THE EL NINO PROCESS——PART Ⅱ:NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT ON THE 1972-1973 EL NINO PROCESS*

In Part Ⅰ,the climatological state of the ocean has been simulated by integrating a 6-layer,4°×5°grid global ocean model up to 100 years.In this part,the forcing in 1971-1973 is calculated by COADS,and using the integrated result of the 100th year as the initial state,we simulated the El Nino process in 1972-1973.The results are as follows:(1)We have reproduced the 1972-1973 El Nino process and its cooling process in the equatorial eastern Pacific.The simulated distribution of SST and the intensity of El Nino are similar to the observations.(2)The results show that there are two kinds of processes in El Nino formation:(i)the warming occurs in the equatorial western Pacific,then propagates eastward to the central Pacific;(ii)the warm water forms near the coast of the South America and then,propagates westward along the equator.Observation indicates that the two processes were included in the El Nino in 1972.Our numerical experiment can simulate out both of them,although the first process is stronger than the second.In observation,the intensities of both processes are similar.(3)The El Nino process in 1972 can be simulated by running the model with the wind stress forcing,but its intensity is 1/2 the magnitude of observation.Only after adding the forcing of heat flux to run the model,its intensity can coincide with the observation.So the forcing effect of heat flux should not be ignored in the formation of El Nino,especially in the study of El Nino intensity.     

NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT ON THE SEASONAL VARIATION OF GLOBAL OCEAN AND THE EL NINO PROCESS:PARTI:CONTROL EXPERIMENT ON THE SEASONAL VARIATION OF GLOBAL OCEAN

A 6-layer,4°×5° horizontal resolution global ocean model has been designed and improved.After a 100-year in-tegration,an equilibrium state has been reached from the upper to lower layers.By taking the mean state of last l0 mod-el years as climatic state,we analyzed the characteristics of the seasonal variation in our model integration.The resultsshow that the simulated seasonal variation is similar to the observed.So the design of our model is successful.Then,us-ing the simulated climatic state of the seasonal variation as the initial state,and the observed stress and thermal state asthe atmospheric forcing,we simulated the process of El Nino in 1972—1973 successfully.The simulated results of sea-sonal variation using our model will be presented in part I.     

NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT ON THE SEASONAL VARIATION OF GLOBAL OCEAN AND THE EL NINO PROCESS: ——PARTⅠ:CONTROL EXPERIMENT ON THE SEASONAL VARIATION OF GLOBAL OCEAN

A 6-layer,4°×5° horizontal resolution global ocean model has been designed and improved.After a 100-year integration,an equilibrium state has been reached from the upper to lower layers.By taking the mean state of last l0 model years as climatic state,we analyzed the characteristics of the seasonal variation in our model integration.The results show that the simulated seasonal variation is similar to the observed.So the design of our model is successful.Then,using the simulated climatic state of the seasonal variation as the initial state,and the observed stress and thermal state as the atmospheric forcing,we simulated the process of El Nino in 1972-1973 successfully.The simulated results of seasonal variation using our model will be presented in part Ⅰ.     

A FURTHER STUDY ON INTERACTION BETWEEN ANOMALOUS WINTER MONSOON IN EAST ASIA AND EL NINO

The interaction between anomalous winter monsoon in East Asia and El Nino is further stud-ied in this paper.The new results still more proved a previous conclusion:there are clear interac-tions between El Nino and winter monsoon in East Asia.The continual westerly burst andstronger cumulus convection over the equatorial central-western Pacific caused by stronger wintermonsoon in East Asia can respectively excite anomalous oceanic Kelvin wave and stronger atmo-spheric intraseasonal oscillation in the tropics,then excite the El Nino event through air-sea inter-action.In El Nino winter,there are warmer and weaker winter monsoons in East Asia.The El Ni-no will still reduce the intensity of intraseasonal oscillation and leads it to be barotropic structure.     

NUMERICAL STUDY ON DOMINATING FACTOR AND KEY AREA OF EL NINO CYCLE FORMATION

A coupled model,which is employed to study the dominating factor and key area of El Ninocycle formation,consists of a dynamical ocean model and a statistical atmospheric model.Thecoupled model with seasonal forcing successfully reproduces the El Nino event cycle which exhibitsquasi-regular oscillations with a preferred period of about 4 years.The results show that the heatcontent(HC)is transported between the eastern and the western tropical Pacific areas.The spatialdistribution of HC anomalies for four phases of the whole cycle clearly shows a possible formationmechanism of El Nino.Experiments further suggest that sea surface temperature in the tropicalPacific and HC in the central tropical Pacific are the most important factors and the central tropicalPacific is the most important area for determining formation of El Nino cycle.     

THE TRIGGERING EFFECT OF NEAR-EQUATORIAL CYCLONES ON EL NIO

The relationship between tropical cyclones developing in the Northwest Pacific and El Nino is analysed and the triggering mechanism of the near-equatorial cyclones on El Nino is proposed. It is pointed out that the near-equatorial tropical cyclones developing equatorward of 10°N can intensify equatorial westerlies and produce Kelvin waves, which propagate to the South American Coasts in about 2-3 months, inducing SST to rise there. The near-equatoral cyclones play an essential role in El Nino. The beginning period of El Nino ranges from January to May. The number of near-equatorial cyclones developing in this period determines whether El Nino can be generated or not. The persistence period is from June to September. El Nino can not continue developing unless there are adequate near-equatorial cyclones. If there are not, the developed El Nino will be broken down. The period from October to December is called the developing period. During this period El Nino may approach its culmination only when adequat     

VARIATIONS IN THE TELECONNECTION INTENSITY INDICES AND THEIR REMOTE RESPONSE TO THE EL NINO EVENTS IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

In this study,the monthly and seasonal teleconnection intensity indices of the Pacific/North American(PNA),Western Atlantic(WA),Western Pacific(WP),Eastern Atlantic(EA)and Eurasian(EU)patterns for the periodfrom 1951 through 1990 are calculated.On this basis,their climatic variations and the relationship between the fiveteleconnection intensity indices and the El Nino events are examined.It is noted that when El Nino is at its mature stage(winter),the weak WP pattern is mainly characteristic of the circulation and the strong PNA pattern is the next.Insummer when El Nino occurs and develops,the strong EU,weak WP and weak WA patterns are the main characteris-tics without the PNA circulation anomalies.Finally,by the nonlinear mapping method a nonlinear mapping diagram isestablished for diagnosing El Nino using three summer teleeonuection intensity indices and May and August SouthernOscillation Indices(SOIs).Thus,the El Nino phenomenon occurring in 1991 is diagnosed.Besides,the winter atmos-pheric circulation of the 1991/1992 El Nino is found to be the weak WP pattern and the PNA pattern is also weak.     

AN OPERATIONAL AUTO-MONITORING FOR THE EL NINO EPISODES USING GMS TBB

By making full use of GMS TBB data, diagnosis and analysis of the formation and development of El Nino event in 2002 and 2003 were made. It suggests that the first clue of the El Nino event appeared in December 2001. The event was formed at the end of 2002 after five phases of development, and came into the phase of flourishing in the winter of 2002. From the analysis the dynamics, it is noted that that the position of the ascending branch of Walker cell was moving from the equatorial west Pacific to the equatorial central Pacific in the phase of formation and development of the El Nino event. The process of diagnosis shows that it can provide an important clue for forecasting the genesis and development of the El Nino episodes.     

EL NINO AND THE ANOMALOUS CLIMATE IN CHINA

The similar features of two El Nino(1982/83 and 1986/88)events in the formation and developmentprocess are revealed based on the analysis of the oceanic and atmospheric data in the present paper Forinstance,the timing of the warming onset and ending was late,the warming region first took place in theequatorial central Pacific,and the propagation of warming event is from west to east.Moreover,it is shownthat the two El Nino events both exerted a significant impact to the strength and the westward extension ofthe subtropical high over the Northwest Pacific.The atmospheric response to this SST anomaly was alsovery marked with the persistent PNA pattern observed in Pacific-North American region.Both events hadthe striking impact on the winter weather process and climate in China,but with considerable differences.On the basis of the analysis of all El Nino events in the recent 40 years,it has been found that the rainfallduring Meiyu period in Changjiang River Basin is associated with the season of El Nino onset.     

ACTIONS OF TYPHOONS OVER THE WESTERN PACIFIC (INCLUDING THE SOUTH CHINA SEA) AND EL NINO

According to me lime cross-section or SSI in me equatorial eastern racing and me historical data on typhoon actions over the western Pacific (including the South China Sea), a composite analysis of the actions of typhoon over the western Pacific in El Nino year (SST in the equatorial eastern Pacific are continuously higher than normal) and in the inverse El Nino year (there are continuative negative anomalies of SST in the equatorial eastern Pacific) is carried out. The results show that the actions of typhoon are in close relation with El Nino: The annual average number of typhoons over the western Pacific and South China Sea is less than normal in El Nino year and more in the inverse El Nino year; The annual average number of the landing typhoon on the continent of China bears the same relationship with El Nino; The anomalies of typhoon actions mainly occur during July-November and their starting are behind the anomaly of SST in the equatorial eastern Pacific.Based on the generation and development co     

VARIATIONS OF 30—60 DAY OSCILLATION IN ATMOSPHERE BEFORE AND DURING 1982 EL NINO

By using the upper-wind data from July 1980 to June 1983,the variations of the low-frequency oscillation(LFO)in the atmosphere before and during 1982 El Nino have been investigated.Before the El Nino,the LFOpropagates from west to east over the equator of the Eastern Hemisphere and from east to west over 20°N.The eastward propagating LFO over the equator consists of zonal wavenumber 1 propagating eastward andzonal wavenumber 2 with a character of stationary wave.The oscillation of zonal wavenumber 2 can modulatethe oscillation strength.After the onset of the El Nino,the propagating directions of the LFO over the equatorand 20°N of the Eastern Hemisphere change to be westward and eastward,respectively.The LFO over thewestern Pacific weakens rapidly and one coming from middle and high latitudes propagates to the equator.From the phase compositions of streamline fields for the zonal wavenumber 1 of equatorial westward propa-gatirg LFO,it is found that the atmospheric heat source in the equator of the eastern Pacific(EEP)excites aseries of the equatorial cyclones and anticyclones which move northward and westward and form the westwardpropagating LFO over the equator.With the wavelength of 20000km,this kind of equatorial wave is similarto the mixing Rossby-gravity wave.In its westward and northward movement,the circulation in East Asiais modified.This may be the mechanism of the influence of El Nino on the climate of China.     

A NUMERICAL STUDY OF SHORT-RANGE CLIMATIC OSCILLATION WITH VARIOUS TIME SCALES FORCED BY EL NINO DURING THE NORTHERN SUMMER

The normal mode method is adopted to decompose the differences between simulations with SST(seasurface temperature)anomahes over centra-eastern Pacific and normal SST by use of a nine-layer global spec-tral model in order to investigate short-range climatic oscillation with various time scales forced by ElNino during the northern summer.Investigation shows that El Nino may have the following influence onatmosphere on various space-time scales.Extra-long wave components of Rossby mode forced by convectiveanomaly over equatorial western Pacific resulting from El Nino produce climatic oscillation on monthly(sea-sonal)time scale in middle-high latitudes of Southern and Northern Hemispheres;extra-long wave componentsof Kelvin mode forced by SST anomalies propagate along the equator,resulting in 30—60 day oscillation oftropical and subtropical atmosphere;and its long waves move eastward with westerly,resulting in quasi-biweekoscillation.     

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE 500hPa DIABATIC HEAT FLOW FIELD IN YEARS OF EL NINO AND ANTI-EL NINO

In this paper,by using spectral method,the monthly-and seasonal-scale atmospheric diabatic heat flow(ADHF)departure fields are diagnosed in the period of 1964—1985 with 6 El Nino years and 6 anti-El Nino years over theNorthern hemisphere(NH).The results show that El Nino phenomena have pronounced influence on the ADHF depar-ture fields.The response of atmosphere exhibits a preferred arrangement of organizing positive and negative departurecenters at low,middle and high latitudes.In anti-El Nino years,the response has the same forms as in El Nino years,but departure centers are opposite in phase.Furthermore,ADHF departure shows low-frequency oscillation in El Ninoyears and anti-El Nino years.The center of difference in departure between El Nino and anti-El Nino years displays abi-monthly oscillation.Finally,through air-sea correlation analysis,it is pointed out that the SST anomaly is the most important cause forADHF anomaly.     

Interannual Salinity Variability in the Tropical Pacific in CMIP5 Simulations

Salinity variability and its causes in the tropical Pacific are analyzed using observations, reanalysis products and model simulations. The mixed-layer salinity(MLS) budget analyses from observations and reanalysis products indicate that its interannual evolution is closely related to ENSO and is predominantly governed by surface forcing and surface advection in the western-central equatorial Pacific. It is found that the observed MLS tendency leads Nin?o3.4 by about 12 months due to the effect of negative freshwater flux(evaporation minus precipitation). These observation-based analyses are used to evaluate the corresponding simulation using GFDL-ESM2 M. It is evident that the model can simulate the spatiotemporal variations of MLS with some discrepancies compared to observations. In the warm pool of the equatorial Pacific the MLS tendency in the model is sensitive to ocean dynamics, however model biases cause the tendency to be underestimated. In particular, the freshwater flux is overestimated while the ocean surface zonal current and vertical velocity at the base of the mixed layer are underestimated. Due to model biases in representing the related physics, the effects of surface forcing on the simulated MLS budget are overestimated and those of subsurface and surface advection are relatively weak. Due to weaker surface advection and subsurface forcing than observed, the simulated compensations for surface forcing are suppressed, and the simulated MLS tendency that leads Nin?o3.4 by 8–10 months, which is shorter than the observed lead time. These results are useful for the interpretation of observational analyses and other model simulations in the tropical Pacific.     

RECONSTRUCTION OF EL NINO EVENT CHRONOLOGY FOR THE LAST 600 YEAR PERIOD

The El Nino events for 1870—1989 were identified according to the sea surface temperature(SST)over the easternequatorial Pacific(0—10°S,90—180°W)and Southern Oscillation Index.The chronicle of the El Nino events in histori-cal time(14708—1879)was reconstructed by using of a series of proxy data such as Australian droughts,Nile floods,Peruvian floods,numbers of landing typhoon in China,cool summers in East Asia,SOI calculated from tree ring data,and El Nino events identified mainly from meteorological and oceanographical conditions along the Ecuador and Perucoast.Finally,114 El Nino events were found for the period 1470—1989.The mean return interval was 4.5 years.The fre-quency of the events seems to have a cyclical variation of 70 years.No close relationship was found between the globalwarming and the frequency of El Nino events.     

A Hybrid Coupled Model for the Pacific Ocean–Atmosphere System.Part I: Description and Basic Performance

A hybrid coupled model(HCM) is constructed for El Nino–Southern Oscillation(ENSO)-related modeling studies over almost the entire Pacific basin. An ocean general circulation model is coupled to a statistical atmospheric model for interannual wind stress anomalies to represent their dominant coupling with sea surface temperatures. In addition, various relevant forcing and feedback processes exist in the region and can affect ENSO in a significant way; their effects are simply represented using historical data and are incorporated into the HCM, including stochastic forcing of atmospheric winds, and feedbacks associated with freshwater flux, ocean biology-induced heating(OBH), and tropical instability waves(TIWs). In addition to its computational efficiency, the advantages of making use of such an HCM enable these related forcing and feedback processes to be represented individually or collectively, allowing their modulating effects on ENSO to be examined in a clean and clear way. In this paper, examples are given to illustrate the ability of the HCM to depict the mean ocean state, the circulation pathways connecting the subtropics and tropics in the western Pacific, and interannual variability associated with ENSO. As satellite data are taken to parameterize processes that are not explicitly represented in the HCM, this work also demonstrates an innovative method of using remotely sensed data for climate modeling. Further model applications related with ENSO modulations by extratropical influences and by various forcings and feedbacks will be presented in Part II of this study.     

ON THE INFLUENCES OF LARGE-SCALE INHOMOGENEITY OF SEA TEMPERATURE UPON THE OCEANIC WAVES IN THE TROPICAL REGIONS-PART II: LINEAR NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTS

By using a linear oceanic mixed layer model, the long period waves in the tropical ocean are investigated numerically. Due to the inhomogeneity of the large-scale average sea temperature field of the ocean in tropical regions, besides the westward propagating equatorial Rossby wave to be modified, there will be a kind of long period thermal wave which propagates eastward under certain oceanic background conditions. Under the influences of these two kinds of waves, the propagating and evolving processes of the sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA) are clearly shown by numerical experiments. The results of numerical experiments are consistent with the ones obtained by the theoretical analysis in Part I. The possible relationship between these two kinds of waves and El Nino events is also discussed indirectly.     

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC CONDITIONS BEFORE THE OCCURRENCE OF TWO TYPES OF EL NIO EVENTS

The atmospheric and oceanic conditions before the onset of EP El Ni?o and CP El Ni?o in nearly 30 years are compared and analyzed by using 850 hPa wind, 20℃ isotherm depth, sea surface temperature and the Wheeler and Hendon index. The results are as follows: In the western equatorial Pacific, the occurrence of the anomalously strong westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Its intensity is far stronger than that of the CP El Ni?o. Two months before the El Ni?o, the anomaly westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o have extended to the eastern Pacific region, while the westerly wind anomaly of the CP El Ni?o can only extend to the west of the dateline three months before the El Ni?o and later stay there. Unlike the EP El Ni?o, the CP El Ni?o is always associated with easterly wind anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific before its onset. The thermocline depth anomaly of the EP El Ni?o can significantly move eastward and deepen. In addition, we also find that the evolution of thermocline is ahead of the development of the sea surface temperature for the EP El Ni?o. The strong MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o in the western and central Pacific is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Measured by the standard deviation of the zonal wind square, the intensity of MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o is significantly greater than that of the CP El Ni?o before the onset of El Ni?o.     

PREDICTION AND VERIFICATION OF THE 1997—1999 EL NINOAND LA NINA BY USING AN INTERMEDIATE OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE COUPLED MODEL

The numerical simulations,hindcasts and verifications of the tropical Pacific sea surfacetemperature anomaly(SSTA)have been conducted by using a dynamical tropical Pacific ocean-atmosphere coupled model named NCCo.The results showed that the model had performedreasonable simulations of the major El Nino episodes in the history,and the model forecast skill in1990s had been significantly improved.NCCo model has been used to predict the tropical PacificSSTA since January 1997.The comparisons between predictions and observations indicated thatthe occurrence,evolution and ending of the 1997/1998 El Nino episode have been predicted fairlywell by using this model.Also,the La Nina episode that began in the autumn of 1998 and thedeveloping tendency of the tropical Pacific SSTA during the year 1999 have been predictedsuccessfully.The forecast skills of NCCo model during the 1997-1999 El Nino and La Ninaevents are above 0.5 at 0—14 lead months.     

Relationships between the East Asian-western north pacific monsoon and ENSO simulated by FGOALS-s2

The relationships between ENSO and the East Asian-western North Pacific monsoon simulated by the Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System model, Spectral Version 2 (FGOALS-s2), a state-of-the-art coupled general circulation model (CGCM), are evaluated. For El Nio developing summers, FGOALS-s2 reproduces the anomalous cyclone over the western North Pacific (WNP) and associated negative precipitation anomalies in situ. In the observation, the anomalous cyclone is transformed to an anomalous anticyclone over the WNP (WNPAC) during El Nio mature winters. The model reproduces the WNPAC and associated positive precipitation anomalies over southeastern China during winter. However, the model fails to simulate the asymmetry of the wintertime circulation anomalies over the WNP between El Nio and La Nia. The simulated anomalous cyclone over the WNP (WNPC) associated with La Nia is generally symmetric about the WNPAC associated with El Nio, rather than shifted westward as that in the observation. The discrepancy can partially explain why simulated La Nin a events decay much faster than observed. In the observation, the WNPAC maintains throughout the El Nio decaying summer under the combined effects of local forcing of the WNP cold sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) and remote forcing from basinwide warming in the tropical Indian Ocean. FGOALS-s2 captures the two mechanisms and reproduces the WNPAC throughout the summer. However, owing to biases in the mean state, the precipitation anomalies over East Asia, especially those of the Meiyu rain belt, are much weaker than that in the observation.