The influence of tropical Pacific forcing on the Arctic Oscillation

The potential role of tropical Pacific forcing in driving the seasonal variability of the Arctic Oscillation (AO) is explored using both observational data and a simple general circulation model (SGCM). A lead–lag regression technique is first applied to the monthly averaged sea surface temperature (SST) and the AO index. The AO maximum is found to be related to a negative SST anomaly over the tropical Pacific three months earlier. A singular value decomposition (SVD) analysis is then performed on the tropical Pacific SST and the sea level pressure (SLP) over the Northern Hemisphere. An AO-like atmospheric pattern and its associated SST appear as the second pair of SVD modes. Ensemble integrations are carried out with the SGCM to test the atmospheric response to different tropical Pacific forcings. The atmospheric response to the linear fit of the model’s empirical forcing associated with the SST variability in the second SVD modes strongly projects onto the AO. Idealized thermal forcings are then designed based on the regression of the seasonally averaged tropical Pacific precipitation against the AO index. Results indicate that forcing anomalies over the western tropical Pacific are more effective in generating an AO-like response while those over the eastern tropical Pacific tend to produce a Pacific-North American (PNA)-like response. The physical mechanisms responsible for the energy transport from the tropical Pacific to the extratropical North Atlantic are investigated using wave activity flux and vorticity forcing formalisms. The energy from the western tropical Pacific forcing tends to propagate zonally to the North Atlantic because of the jet stream waveguide effect while the transport of the energy from the eastern tropical Pacific forcing mostly concentrates over the PNA area. The linearized SGCM results show that nonlinear processes are involved in the generation of the forced AO-like pattern.     

一个新的ENSO监测指标的研究

利用1982～1996年逐月平均SST和OLR资料,首先通过奇异值分解（SVD）技术研究了热带太平洋大气对流活动和海温场的时间和空间结构及其相互关系。结果表明,第一模态都明显地反映出ENSO信息,两场间具有很高的相关。分析了80年代以来的E1 Ni?o/La Ni?a盛期的热带太平洋对流活动场以及NINO 3指数与OLR场的点相关,结果指出,中东太平洋和西太平洋上存在类似偶极子型的两个符号相反的相关区,与SVD第一模态空间分布型十分相似。由此建立了反映ENSO期间热带中东太平洋和西太平洋反向变化的对流涛动     

中低纬海气相互作用的耦合模态变化研究

利用1948—2003年的NCEP再分析资料和英国气象局Hadley气候预测和研究中心的海表面温度资料,从整体分析地球中低纬三大洋海气耦合系统的角度出发,使用SVD方法研究中低纬海气相互作用的耦合变化。结果表明,中低纬海气相互作用是一个有机的耦合整体,其变化不管从年际还是年代际上都存在耦合相关性,这一点给我们提出了一个新的研究全球范围海气耦合变化的思路。提取的海气耦合基本模态的正、负异常年份的海温和风场异常合成分析结果显示,当赤道东太平洋的海水偏暖时,热带印度洋和热带大西洋的海水也偏暖,热带西太平洋直至中纬度太平洋的海温总体偏冷。就印度洋而言非洲大陆以南30~50 °S的大片海区存在明显的海温负异常。北美洲大陆的东岸30 °N以北和南美洲大陆的东岸30 °S以南的海区都为明显的海温负异常。当赤道东太平洋的海水偏冷时各大海区的海温分布情况反之。      

Emerging role of Indian ocean on Indian northeast monsoon

This study examines the emerging role of Indian Ocean sea surface temperature (SST) on the inter-annual variability (IAV) of Indian north-east monsoon rainfall (NEMR). The IAV of NEMR is associated with the warm SST anomaly over east Bay-of-Bengal (BoB) (88.5^oE–98.5^oE; 8.5^oN–15.5^oN) and cool SST anomaly over east equatorial Indian Ocean (80.5^oE–103.5^oE; 6.5^oS–3.5^oN). The gradient of SST between these boxes (i.e. northern box minus southern box) shows strong and robust association with the Indian NEMR variability in the recent decades. For establishing the teleconnections, SST, mean sea level pressure, North Indian Ocean tropical storm track, and circulation data have been used. The study reveals that during the positive SST gradient years, the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) shifts northwards over the East Indian Ocean. The tropical depressions, storms and cyclones formed in the North Indian Ocean moves more zonally and strike the southern peninsular India and hence excess NEMR. While, during the negative SST gradient years, the ITCZ shifts southwards over the Indian Ocean. The tropical depressions, storms and cyclones formed in the North Indian Ocean moves more northwestward direction and after crossing 15^oN latitude re-curve to north-east direction towards head BoB and misses southern peninsular India and hence, deficient NEMR.     

北太平洋海温异常对中国东北地区旱涝的影响

文中利用 196 1～ 2 0 0 0年中国东北地区 80个测站 4 0a的月降水和同一时期的北太平洋海温资料以及奇异值分解 (SVD)技术 ,分析了北太平洋海温异常对中国东北地区夏季旱涝的影响。结果表明 :东北地区夏季降水与北太平洋海温异常之间存在着较为密切的联系 ,当前期冬季和春季甚至是前一年夏季赤道中东太平洋海温如果处于异常偏暖 (或偏冷 )状态 ,并且西风漂流区具有较明显的SST负 (或正 )距平分布时 ,则东北大部分地区夏季降水具有整体偏多 (或偏少 )的倾向。当然 ,东北地区降水与北太平洋海温异常之间的这种联系也并非是简单的一一对应的关系     

Interdecadal variability/long-term changes in global precipitation patterns during the past three decades: global warming and/or pacific decadal variability?

This study explores how global precipitation and tropospheric water vapor content vary on the interdecadal/long-term time scale during past three decades (1988–2010 for water vapor), in particular to what extent the spatial structures of their variations relate to changes in surface temperature. EOF analyses of satellite-based products indicate that the first two modes of global precipitation and columnar water vapor content anomalies are in general related to the El Niño-Southern oscillation. The spatial patterns of their third modes resemble the corresponding linear fits/trends estimated at each grid point, which roughly represent the interdecadal/long-term changes happening during the same time period. Global mean sea surface temperature (SST) and land surface temperature have increased during the past three decades. However, the water vapor and precipitation patterns of change do not reflect the pattern of warming, in particular in the tropical Pacific basin. Therefore, other mechanisms in addition to global warming likely exist to account for the spatial structures of global precipitation changes during this time period. An EOF analysis of longer-record (1949–2010) SST anomalies within the Pacific basin (60^oN–60^oS) indicates the existence of a strong climate regime shift around 1998/1999, which might be associated with the Pacific decadal variability (PDV) as suggested in past studies. Analyses indicate that the observed linear changes/trends in both precipitation and tropospheric water vapor during 1988–2010 seem to result from a combined impact of global mean surface warming and the PDV shift. In particular, in the tropical central-eastern Pacific, a band of increases along the equator in both precipitation and water vapor sandwiched by strong decreases south and north of it are likely caused by the opposite effects from global-mean surface warming and PDV-related, La Niña-like cooling in the tropical central-eastern Pacific. This narrow band of precipitation increase could also be considered an evidence for the influence of global mean surface warming.     

Coupled Modes of Rainfall over China and the Pacific Sea Surface Temperature in Boreal Summertime

In this study,monthly NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data and NOAA ERSST as well as observed precipitation data from 160 stations in China were used to investigate coupled modes affecting the rainfall over China and sea surface temperature (SST) in the Pacific during boreal summertime based on singular value decomposition (SVD) method.The SVD analysis revealed three remarkable coupled modes:rainfall over North China associated with an ENSO-like SST pattern (ENSO-NC),rainfall over the Yangtze River valley associated with SST anomalies in the western tropical Pacific (WTP-YRV),and rainfall over the Yellow River loop valley associated with tropical Pacific meridional mode-like SST pattern (TPMM-YRLV).These coupled SVD modes appear robust and closely correlated with the single field.Furthermore,the covariabilities among of the three coupled modes have different characteristics at the decadal time scale.In addition,the possible atmospheric teleconnections of the coupled rainfall and SST modes were discussed.For the ENSO-NC mode,anomalous low-pressure and high-pressure over the Asian continent induces moisture divergence over North China and reduces summer rainfall there.For the WTP-YRV mode,East Asia-Pacific teleconnection induces moisture convergence over the Yangtze River valley and enhances the summer rainfall there.The TPMM SST and the summer rainfall anomalies over the YRVL are linked by a circumglobal,wave-train-like,atmospheric teleconnection.     

Evaluation and Improvement of a SVD-Based Empirical Atmospheric Model

An empirical atmospheric model(EAM) based on the singular value decomposition(SVD) method is evaluated using the composite El Ni(?)o/Southern Oscillation(ENSO) patterns of sea surface temperature (SST) and wind anomalies as the target scenario.Two versions of the SVD-based EAM were presented for comparisons.The first version estimates the wind anomalies in response to SST variations based on modes that were calculated from a pair of global wind and SST fields(i.e.,conventional EAM or CEAM).The second version utilizes the same model design but is based on modes that were calculated in a region-wise manner by separating the tropical domain from the remaining extratropical regions(i.e.,region-wise EAM or REAM). Our study shows that,while CEAM has shown successful model performance over some tropical areas, such as the equatorial eastern Pacific(EEP),the western North Pacific(WNP),and the tropical Indian Ocean(TIO),its performance over the North Pacific(NP) seems poor.When REAM is used to estimate the wind anomalies instead of CEAM,a marked improvement over NP readily emerges.Analyses of coupled modes indicate that such an improvement can be attributed to a much stronger coupled variability captured by the first region-wise SVD mode at higher latitudes compared with that captured by the conventional one. The newly proposed way of constructing the EAM(i.e.,REAM) can be very useful in the coupled studies because it gives the model a wider application beyond the commonly accepted tropical domain.     

PREDICTABILITY LEVELS OF MONTHLY FORECAST BASED ON TIME-AVERAGED OCEAN/ATMOSPHERE VARIABLES —A NATURALLY OCCURRING ANALOGUE STUDY

Naturally occurring analogues between the monthly averaged data of 1000,500 and 100 hPa geopotential height and the sea surface temperature (SST) in the Pacific,Atlantic and Indian Oceans during the period January 1956-December 1972 are used to study the potential predictability levels of forecasting the monthly mean ocean/atmosphere variables.It is found that in the ocean-atmosphere system the forecast of geopotential height may be more difficult than SST,and that the predictability level of monthly mean geopotential height anomaly calculated from the corresponding monthly mean SST appears relatively poor,but it can be improved by using the past observational data of monthly mean SST/geopotential fields.     

The natural oscillation of two types of ENSO events based on analyses of CMIP5 model control runs

The eastern-and central-Pacific El Ni（n）o-Southem Oscillation （EP-and CP-ENSO） have been found to be dominant in the tropical Pacific Ocean,and are characterized by interannual and decadal oscillation,respectively.In the present study,we defined the EP-and CP-ENSO modes by singular value decomposition （SVD） between SST and sea level pressure （SLP） anomalous fields.We evaluated the natural features of these two types of ENSO modes as simulated by the pre-industrial control runs of 20 models involved in phase five of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project （CMIP5）.The results suggested that all the models show good skill in simulating the SST and SLP anomaly dipolar structures for the EP-ENSO mode,but only 12 exhibit good performance in simulating the tripolar CP-ENSO modes.Wavelet analysis suggested that the ensemble principal components in these 12 models exhibit an interannual and multi-decadal oscillation related to the EP-and CP-ENSO,respectively.Since there are no changes in external forcing in the pre-industrial control runs,such a result implies that the decadal oscillation of CP-ENSO is possibly a result of natural climate variability rather than external forcing.     

热带对流季内振荡强度异常特征及其与海表温度的关系

利用外逸长波辐射 (outgoing longwave radiation, OLR) 资料分析了热带对流季内振荡 (ISO) 强度的季节变化及年际异常特征, 重点研究其与海表温度的关系。结果表明:最强的OLR季内振荡主要位于高海表温度 (SST) 区, 即热带印度洋和热带西太平洋区域, 终年存在, 冬、春季最强, 振荡中心偏于夏半球。OLR季内振荡强度年际异常显著区域是热带中东太平洋区域、西北太平洋区域和西南太平洋区域, 它与SST年际异常存在局地正相关关系, 伴随环流的辐合辐散, 并与ENSO事件关系密切。另外, El Ni?o事件发生之前, 热带印度洋和热带西太平区域OLR季内振荡增强, 其中心随事件的发展逐渐东移, 事件发生后这两个区域ISO减弱, 这与OLR季内振荡强度年际异常显著的区域具有内在连贯性。海表温度是决定OLR季内振荡强度季节变化、年际异常的一个关键因子。     

西太平洋副热带高压对热带 海温异常响应的研究

利用多年的观测资料,研究了西太平洋副热带高压对热带海温异常的响应及其相互作用过程。着重研究冬、夏季西太平洋副高对同期及前期不同海域（特别是赤道东、西太平洋以及印度洋海域）海温异常的响应;用SVD方法分析了夏季副热带高压与前冬、前春及同期各月全球海温的最佳耦合模态。在对比研究西太平洋副热带高压异常时其垂直环流变化的基础上,进而研究海气相互作用对副热带高压影响的物理过程。     

北太平洋海温异常的空间模态及其与东亚环流异常的关系

运用英国气象局全球海温和NCEP/NCAR 再分析逐月资料, 分析了1979年以来北太平洋夏季海温异常的主要模态, 并探讨了海温异常的空间分布与东亚环流异常的关系。结果表明: 北太平洋夏季海温主要存在两种模态, 当太平洋热带地区西高东低 (西低东高), 西太平洋到黑潮区海温偏高 (低), 东南太平洋的海温偏低 (高) 时, 东亚贝加尔湖南侧地区为显著的正 (负) 高度异常。进一步分析发现这种环流异常与北太平洋西部海温异常引起的辐合辐散有关, 北太平洋西部近大陆海域海温异常偏暖 (冷), 对应上空为异常的上升 (下沉) 运动, 因质量的连续性使贝加尔湖南侧地区低层辐散 (辐合) 异常, 有利于该地区异常反气旋性环流的加强 (减弱)。     

The extratropical sensitivity to the meridional extent of tropical ENSO forcing

The extratropical response to tropical remote forcing has been examined with so-called tropical ocean-global atmosphere experiments, which use prescribed sea surface temperature (SST) in the tropical Pacific and a slab mixed-layer ocean model elsewhere. In this study we have revisited this experimental design and found that the extratropical response is quite sensitive to the meridional extent of tropical prescribed SST domain. Even in the case of a prescribed annual cycle only (i.e., no ENSO), the differences in the prescribed SST regions lead to different atmospheric motions in the adjacent extratropics. When the tropical forcing includes ENSO, the sensitivity to the meridional domain is more prominent, especially during La Niña events. In La Niña, the prescribed SST is warmer than the simulated SST in the northern subtropics, and the warmer SST differences continue to 30°N. This broad SST differences accompany enhanced atmospheric meridional circulation that directly connects the tropics and extratropics within the Pacific basin. Moreover, the Rossby wave excitation also increases, so the effect of prescribed region difference is felt beyond the Pacific basin. On the other hand, the effect of ENSO sea surface temperature anomalie (i.e., ENSO experiment composite minus control experiment annual cycle, both of which have the same prescribed SST domain) is stronger in the broad tropical forcing experiment. However, the ENSO anomaly composite from own annual cycle is similar regardless of the meridional extent of forcing region, and commonly mimics the Northern Hemisphere El Niño composite of nature in the boreal winter season.     

北太平洋区域浅层海温与海平面气压场年代际异常关系的分析

用奇异值分解(SVD)方法，研究了北太平洋区域1、7月浅层海温(ST)异常与同期海平面气压(SLP)异常场的关系。结果表明：(1)统计显著的主要是第一模态，且1月的0—80m层、7月的20—120m的上层ST与SLP′，第一模态层际差异很小；(2)年代际变化是该区域海气相互作用的主要时域特征，“突变”发生在1970年代后半期，1月的年代际变化早于7月的1—2年；(3)合成分析表明，年代际变化的环流实质是北太平洋中部前期(1970年代中叶以前)ST持续偏高，相应1(7)月阿留申低压(北太平洋副高)偏弱、位置偏西(变化不明显)，而东亚冬(夏)季风偏弱，反之亦然。     

Impacts of the leading modes of tropical Indian Ocean sea surface temperature anomaly on sub-seasonal evolution of the circulation and rainfall over East Asia during boreal spring and summer

The two leading modes of the interannual variability of the tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) sea surface temperature (SST) anomaly are the Indian Ocean basin mode (IOBM) and the Indian Ocean dipole mode (IODM) from March to August. In this paper, the relationship between the TIO SST anomaly and the sub-seasonal evolution of the circulation and rainfall over East Asia during boreal spring and summer is investigated by using correlation analysis and composite analysis based on multi-source observation data from 1979 to 2013, together with numerical simulations from an atmospheric general circulation model. The results indicate that the impacts of the IOBM on the circulation and rainfall over East Asia vary remarkably from spring to summer. The anomalous anticyclone over the tropical Northwest Pacific induced by the warm IOBM is closely linked with the Pacific–Japan or East Asia–Pacific teleconnection pattern, which persists from March to August. In the upper troposphere over East Asia, the warm phase of the IOBM generates a significant anticyclonic response from March to May. In June and July, however, the circulation response is characterized by enhanced subtropical westerly flow. A distinct anomalous cyclone is found in August. Overall, the IOBM can exert significant influence on the western North Pacific subtropical high, the South Asian high, and the East Asian jet, which collectively modulate the precipitation anomaly over East Asia. In contrast, the effects of the IODM on the climate anomaly over East Asia are relatively weak in boreal spring and summer. Therefore, studying the impacts of the TIO SST anomaly on the climate anomaly in East Asia should take full account of the different sub-seasonal response during boreal spring and summer.     

Quantitative analysis of the feedback induced by the freshwater flux in the tropical Pacific using CMIP5

Freshwater flux (FWF) directly affects sea surface salinity (SSS) and hence modulates sea surface temperature (SST) in the tropical Pacific. This paper quantifies a positive correlation between FWF and SST using observations and simulations of the fifth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) to analyze the interannual variability in the tropical Pacific. Comparisons among the displacements of FWF, SSS and SST interannual variabilities illustrate that a large FWF variability is located in the west-central equatorial Pacific, covarying with a large SSS variability, whereas a large SST variability is located in the eastern equatorial Pacific. Most CMIP5 models can reproduce the fact that FWF leads to positive feedback to SST through an SSS anomaly as observed. However, the difference in each model's performance results from different simulation capabilities of the CMIP5 models in the magnitudes and positions of the interannual variabilities, including the mixed layer depth and the buoyancy flux in the equatorial Pacific. SSS anomalies simulated from the CMIP5 multi-model are sensitive to FWF interannual anomalies, which can lead to differences in feedback to interannual SST variabilities. The relationships among the FWF, SSS and SST interannual variabilities can be derived using linear quantitative measures from observations and the CMIP5 multi-model simulations. A 1 mm d-1 FWF anomaly corresponds to an SSS anomaly of nearly 0.12 psu in the western tropical Pacific and a 0.11°C SST anomaly in the eastern tropical Pacific.     

Atmospheric anomalies related to interdecadal variability of SST in the North Pacific

Anomalous patterns of the atmospheric circulation and climate are studied corresponding to the two basic interdecadal variation modes of sea surface temperature (SST) in the North Pacific, namely, the 25-35-year mode and the 7-10-year mode. Results clearly indicate that corresponding to the positive and negative phases of the interdecadal modes of SST anomaly (SSTA) in the North Pacific, the anomalous patterns of the atmospheric circulation and climate are approximately out of phase, fully illustrating the important role of the interdecadal modes of SST. Since the two interdecadal modes of SSTA in the North Pacific have similar horizontal structures, their impacts on the atmospheric circulation and climate are also analogous. The impact of the interdecadal modes of the North Pacific SST on the atmospheric circulation is barotropic at middle latitudes and baroclinic in tropical regions.     

夏季逐月东亚高空西风急流经向偏移与热带中、东太平洋海温的关联

Previous studies have shown that meridional displacement of the East Asian upper-tropospheric jet stream (EAJS) dominates interannual variability of the EAJS in the summer months. This study investigates the tropical Pacific sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies associated with meridional displacement of the monthly EAJS during the summer. The meridional displacement of the EAJS in June is significantly associated with the tropical central Pacific SST anomaly in the winter of previous years, while displacements in July and August are related to tropical eastern Pacific SST anomalies in the late spring and concurrent summer. The EAJS tends to shift southward in the following June (July and August) corresponding to a warm SST anomaly in the central (eastern) Pacific in the winter (late spring-summer). The westerly anomaly south of the Asian jet stream is a result of tropical central Pacific warm SST anomaly-related warming in the tropical troposphere, which is proposed as a possible reason for southward displacement of the EAJS in June. The late spring-summer warm SST anomaly in the tropical eastern Pacific, however, may be linked to southward displacement of the EAJS in July and August through a meridional teleconnection over the western North Pacific (WNP) and East Asia.     

Numerical Simulation of the Effect of the SST Anomalies in the Tropical Western Pacific on the Blocking Highs over the Northeastern Asia

The effects of the sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the tropical western Pacific on the atmospheric circulation anomalies over East Asia are simulated by the IAP-GCM with an observed and idealized distributions of the SST anomalies in the tropical western Pacific,respectively.Firstly,the atmospheric circulation anomalies during July and August,1980 are simulated by three anomalous experiments including the global SST anomaly experiment,the tropical SST anomaly experiment and the extratropical SST anomaly experiment,using the observed SST anomalies in 1980.It is shown that the SST anomalies in the tropical ocean greatly influence the formation and maintenance of the blocking high over the northeastern Asia,and may play a more important role than the SST anomalies in the extratropical ocean in the influence on the atmospheric circulation anomalies.Secondly,the effects of the SST anomalies in the tropical western Pacific on the atmospheric circulation anomalies over East Asia are also simulated w