雹暴的闪电活动特征与降水结构研究

利用地面雷电探测网获取的地闪资料分析了10次雹暴过程的闪电分布和演变特征, 并结合地面多普勒雷达和TRMM卫星的闪电成像仪(LIS)、测雨雷达(PR)、微波成像仪(TMI)分析了雹暴的降水结构及其与闪电活动的关系. 研究结果表明: 降雹天气过程的正地闪比例较高, 平均值为45.5%; 在雹云快速发展阶段, 地闪频数存在明显的“跃增”; 在整个降雹阶段正地闪活动非常活跃, 在正地闪频数增加的过程中通常伴有负地闪频数的下降; 在雹暴的减弱消散阶段, 地闪频数显著减少. 两次典型雹暴的闪电活动非常活跃, 总闪电频数分别为183次/min和55次/min; 其降水结构特征是, 大于30 dBZ的强回波单体多集中于系统的前缘, 系统后部伴有稳定性的层状云降水区, 回波顶高均超过14 km; 其对流降水的贡献率分别为85%和97%. 对6 km高度处的雷达回波与总闪电关系的研究表明, 总闪电主要出现在强回波区(>30 dBZ)及其周围. 对流降水区发生闪电的几率约是层云降水区的20倍以上, 可以利用闪电与对流降水的相关性来有效地识别对流降水区. 初步结果还表明闪电频数和冰水含量之间呈线性关系, 即冰水含量越高, 相应的闪电活动也越频繁.     

区域闪电活动对地面相对湿度的响应

全球闪电活动表现出明显的地域差异，温度和湿度是造成这种差异的基本气象因素.本文利用美国全球水资源和气候中心提供的1995～2002年全球闪电资料和NCEP气象再分析资料，研究了区域闪电密度对地面相对湿度(RH)的响应.发现在平均相对湿度RH<72%的经度带里闪电密度与RH呈正相关.而在RH>73%的经度带里，闪电密度与RH呈负相关；在RH>74%的赤道地区闪电活动与RH呈负相关, 而在RH<72%的中高纬地区闪电密度与RH呈正相关.得到结论：当地面相对湿度过大时，相对湿度的增加不利于闪电活动的发生；而当相对湿度较小时，相对湿度的增加有利于闪电活动的发生.地面相对湿度的临界值域约为72%～74%.此结论在不同经、纬度的几个典型区域均得到了验证，并探讨了过大的相对湿度抑制闪电活动发生的可能原因.     

青藏高原闪电活动的时空分布特征

利用卫星上携带的闪电探测仪所获取的8年闪电资料(1995～2002)对青藏高原闪电活动的时空分布以及高原季风期间闪电活动对地面热力学特征的响应进行了研究.结果表明,高原上的平均闪电密度为3fl·a-1·km-2,并在高原中部（32°N, 88°E）出现闪电密度峰值5.1fl·a-1·km-2.闪电活动主要发生在6～8月,并在6月下旬至7月中旬最为活跃.大部分地区的闪电活动日变化峰值出现在14:00～16:00 LT,在中西部的显著高山地区早于这一时刻,而在显著低海拔的塔里木和柴达木盆地晚于这一时刻.夏季季风期间高原上的闪电活动明显依赖于地表的热力学特征,并与地表鲍恩比和感热通量呈明显的线性正相关,相关系数分别为0.7和0.6,鲍恩比有可能作为调整闪电产生效率的量度.     

闪电放电过程的近红外光谱及温度沿放电通道的演化特征

利用无狭缝红外光谱仪, 获得山东地区闪电放电过程760~970 nm范围的近红外光谱.光谱特征分析得出: 近红外光谱主要是峰值电流之后、放电后期的辐射, 谱线主要是中性原子的贡献.首次讨论了放电后期的通道温度和光谱总强度沿放电通道的演化特征.结果表明, 通道温度较回击电流上升至峰值阶段降低, 约为16000 K; 不同闪电的光谱结构、通道温度差异不大, 反映了放电等离子体复合阶段的特性; 地闪通道的温度和光谱总强度沿放电通道略呈单调变化趋势, 接地点附近最大; 云闪通道的温度和光谱总强度沿放电通道非单调变化, 在通道的拐弯、分叉以及结点附近发生突变.     

基于时差法三维定位系统对闪电放电过程的观测研究

系统介绍了自行研制的基于GPS同步和时差法定位技术的闪电VHF辐射源三维定位系统以及山东北部地区闪电过程同步观测分析,成功获得了雷暴中闪电通道辐射源三维时空发展物理图像.并结合地面的快电场变化资料,对典型负地闪、正地闪和云闪放电通道的三维时空演变过程进行了分析,结果表明,正、负地闪激发传输过程不同,典型负地闪的预击穿过程发展速度约为5.2×104m/s,被初始负击穿引发的向下梯级先导传输过程发展速度约为1.3×105m/s;正地闪初始阶段也是激发负流光传输,以优势水平方向在正电荷区内传输,并为始发点积累正电荷,从而触发向下正流光传输.重点分析了一次由双极性窄脉冲事件(NBP)引发的云内闪电三维放电过程,该脉冲发生在约10.5km的高度上即上部正电荷区域内,同时引发云内放电通道水平向周围扩展,产生大量击穿辐射源,双极性窄脉冲辐射峰值强度值高达16.7kW,而普通闪电辐射源功率一般在100mW～500W范围内.与经典云闪完全不同,此类新型云闪及其三维传输过程在国内第一次被发现.文章还讨论了其可能的触发机制.     

卫星观测的中国及周边地区闪电密度的气候分布

雷暴和闪电活动的气候分布是一个地区气候的基本特征之一, 迄今对中国及周边地区闪电密度分布的实际情况尚缺乏详尽的了解. 基于星载 OTD (1995.4~2000.3)和 LIS (1997.12~2003.3)共8 a观测的闪电资料分析, 给出了这一地区0.5°×0.5°网格点的闪电密度分布, 仔细分析发现: (ⅰ) 喜马拉雅山系南北两侧平均闪电密度的比值达到10倍, 而中国陆地东部和西部平均闪电密度的比值为3.5倍, 闪电密度平均值随海陆距离和纬度呈现规律性的变化, 与年平均降水量的相应变化趋势一致, 说明青藏高原和由西向东的三级阶梯状的大尺度地形以及纬度是形成这个地区雷电活动气候分布总体特征的基本因素. (ⅱ) 中国陆地闪电密度分布的区域性差异是显著的, 在不同的地理环境下闪电密度高值带(中心)与中尺度地形有不同的对应关系: 中国东部湿润地区高闪电密度带经常出现在南北或东北-西南走向、海拔500~1500 m的中尺度山脉和丘陵地区附近, 两者水平尺度和走向大体一致, 而闪电低密度带则经常出现在山间盆(谷)地和平原地区; 中国西部寒旱地区闪电相对密度高值区主要分布在祁连山南麓青海湖地区、天山向西的伊犁河谷以及唐古拉山与念青唐古拉山两山之间的盆地; 滨海100 km以内的海陆过渡带上, 在一系列有山体和丘陵地形隆起及大城市等地区出现闪电密度高值中心. (ⅲ) 中国近海的平均闪电密度是全球海洋相应值的5倍; 而在黑潮主干海域有闪电高密度带, 密度值比邻近海域高2~5倍, 这是黑潮主干海域的高温、高盐特征显著影响该海域强对流发展的一个新的事实. 另外, 还给出了安徽省的云闪/云地闪比Z值约为3.0.     

基于TRMM卫星多传感器资料揭示的亚洲季风区雷暴时空分布特征

利用16年（1998-2013）的热带降水测量任务卫星（TRMM）降水雷达和闪电成像仪等多传感器观测资料,分析了亚洲季风区内雷暴和强雷暴的空间分布、季节变化及日变化等气候特征.文中取闪电数大于1的雷达降水特征为雷暴,并将闪电频数在前10%的雷暴定义为强雷暴.结果表明：雷暴活动主要集中在陆地及近海区域,陆地与海洋上的雷暴密度之比约为4.4：1,强雷暴密度之比约为7.4：1.0-10°N纬度带内雷暴数占总雷暴的比例最大（占总数的31.7%）,而强雷暴则在20°N-30°N区间最为活跃（34.5%）.雷暴与闪电密度的空间分布在低纬度区域（0-30°N）较为一致,但在中纬度地区（30°N-36°N）呈现出不同的分布特征,即从西部的青藏高原向东部的江淮流域,雷暴密度逐渐减少但闪电密度逐渐增加;而强雷暴与闪电密度的空间分布基本一致.受亚洲夏季风活动影响,低纬度地区强雷暴更容易发生在春季,强中心位于喜马拉雅山南麓东端,次中心位于中南半岛,而中纬度地区在夏季最为活跃,强中心和次中心则分别位于喜马拉雅山南麓西端和中国江淮流域.陆地上雷暴主要集中在午后至傍晚,少数区域受局地环流和气象条件的影响夜雷暴活动频繁,而海洋上雷暴更易发生在午夜至清晨.     

基于甚高频三维定位估算闪电通道产生的氮氧化物

基于闪电甚高频辐射源三维定位系统,本文采用了一种三维空间单元网格化提取闪电通道并计算其长度的方法。该方法通过对定位辐射源点进行聚集处理,继而进行通道提取后,可比较准确地得到一次闪电的三维通道总长度。为了验证该方法的可行性,本文设计并进行了模拟实验,定量给出了该方法的误差不超过10％。利用实验室得出的单位放电通道长度产生的NO量与气压的关系,将其应用到不同高度上单位闪电通道长度产生的NOx量。基于该方法对青藏高原东北部地区一次雷暴过程中11次负地闪和59次云闪的通道长度和其产生的氮氧化物量进行了计算。结果表明：地闪平均通道长度为28.9km,云闪平均通道长度为22.3km;一次地闪产生的NOx量平均为1.89×10^25分子数,一次云闪产生的NOx量平均为0.42×10^25分子数。     

亚洲季风区深对流系统的区域分布和日变化特征

利用TRMM卫星12年的观测资料,分析了亚洲季风区20dBZ回波顶高大于14km的深对流系统的分布特征,结合NCEP再分析资料对深对流系统的空间分布特征成因进行了探讨,并对不同地形条件下的深对流系统进行了对比研究.结果表明,深对流系统主要发生在陆地上,夏季风爆发前,深对流系统主要分布在20°N以南;季风爆发后,深对流系统的分布向中纬度地区发展并以青藏高原南麓地区最活跃.青藏高原上的深对流系统的发生频数较中国中东部高,但水平尺度小,对流强度较弱,而中国中东部地区的深对流系统虽然发生频数较低但对流强,且闪电频数大.洋面上的深对流系统表现为最小红外亮温小（对应云顶高）,40dBZ回波最大面积比陆地上大但出现高度较低,闪电频数少.陆地上的深对流系统主要集中发生在午后至午夜,青藏高原上的深对流更加集中的发生在午后至傍晚,海洋上发生在凌晨至日出前的深对流系统较其他时段多,但日变化幅度不大,热带海洋性大陆深对流的日变化与大陆上类似.     

高原地区云对地闪电首次回击的光谱研究

用无狭缝光栅摄谱仪,获得了青海西宁地区云对地闪电首次回击过程400～700nm波 长范围的光谱,并首次在闪电的单次回击光谱中记录到了波长为604.6nm和619.4nm的谱线. 将原子结构的理论应用于闪电光谱的研究,用多组态Dirac Fock方法,计算了有关光谱线 的 波长、振子强度以及相应的激发态能量等参数,理论与试验观测资料进行比较分析后发现, 高原地区闪电首次回击光谱的结构及跃迁特性与其他地区有明显的区别,除NII离子n=3 的低 激发态产生的跃迁谱线外,激发能量为13～14eV左右的中性NI和OI的跃迁增多,但很难观测 到OII离子的跃迁谱线.     

气溶胶对雷暴云电过程影响的数值模拟研究

本文在已有的三维雷暴云起、放电模式中加入了一种经典的气溶胶活化参数化方案,结合一次长春雷暴个例,进行了雷暴云起放电数值模拟试验.研究显示气溶胶浓度改变对雷暴云微物理、起电及放电过程都有重要影响.结果表明:(1)污染型雷暴云中气溶胶浓度增加时,云滴数目增多,上升风速加强;云中冰晶与霰粒子数浓度增加但尺度减小;(2)相对于清洁型雷暴云,污染型雷暴云非感应起电过程弱,感应起电过程强,起电持续时间长;(3)污染型雷暴云中首次放电时间延迟,闪电持续发生的时间长,总闪电频次增加,正地闪频次增加明显.     

沿海地区一次多单体雷暴电荷结构时空演变

利用闪电放电辐射源三维时空分布测量,分析了山东低海拔地区一次多单体雷暴过程的电荷结构演变以及与回波强度的关系.结果表明对流云区电荷结构是典型的上正下负电偶极结构,且随着雷暴发展正负电荷层强度增大,高度抬升.负电荷区处在40 dBz以上的强回波区域中,正电荷层处在约40 dBz区域中.层状云区也有类似结构,只是强度弱,高度低.观测到的四层电荷结构是出现在对流区消散阶段,此时,由于云体不同部位的不同消散程度,电荷结构发生断裂,云体前部正负电荷区下沉,云体中部正负电荷区高度变化不大,但负电荷区域变薄,呈现出四层电荷结构.从本例结果说明,雷暴优势起电机制通常能形成电偶极或三极性结构,多极结构可能不是起电形成.本文还分析了一次负地闪传输过程,和宏观电荷结构很好吻合,说明利用三维定位系统观测,可以较好地描述雷暴宏观电荷结构.     

北京地区闪电活动与气溶胶浓度的关系研究

基于2015—2017年北京闪电定位网(BLNET)总闪资料与35个自动空气质量监测站PM2.5数据,分析了北京地区(39.5°N—41.0°N,115.0°E—117.5°E)夏季(6—8月)闪电活动与PM2.5的时空分布特征,同时针对117次雷暴天气,探讨了气溶胶浓度变化对闪电活动的可能影响.结果表明:PM2.5浓度及总闪密度均呈现自西北向东南升高的空间分布特征.闪电峰值在污染背景下出现的时间(19∶00LT)晚于清洁背景下(15∶00LT)约4h,且总闪百分比(～20%)可达清洁背景下(～9%)的两倍.对雷暴前1～4h的PM2.5浓度与时间窗(12∶00—22∶00LT)内总闪数目的中位数进行相关分析,发现PM2.5浓度低于130μg·m-3时,PM2.5与总闪数存在明显正相关,此时气溶胶可能通过影响云微物理过程进而影响雷暴的对流发展,增强闪电活动;PM2.5大于150μg·m-3时,总闪数随PM2.5浓度的增加呈减少趋势,可能的原因是高气溶胶浓度下地面太阳辐射显著下降,对流活动受到抑制,导致闪电活动减少.当PM2.5浓度在130～150μg·m-3时,两者关系不明显.     

Numerical simulation of 23 June 2016 Yancheng City EF4 tornadic supercell and analysis of lightning activity

Based on the Weather Research Forecasting (WRF) model that features charging and discharging parameterization, relationships between tornado, hail and lightning were investigated for a tornado-producing (EF4 intensity) supercell thunderstorm over Yancheng City in Jiangsu Province, China, on 23 June 2016. Based on a sounding at 0800, there was a low lifting condensation level, substantial convective available potential energy (CAPE), and strong vertical wind shear near Yancheng City, which promote supercell development. At 1400, observations revealed that hail production and a dramatic increase of positive cloud-to-ground flash rates occurred simultaneously, maximizing five minutes later. The tornado occurred 30 min after the hail production. The time of minimum positive cloud-to-ground flash rates was 15 min later. The simulation indicated that the tornadic supercell moved eastward and that positive cloud-to-ground flash rates increased dramatically at 1400, the same as observed, but their maximum was 5 min later than observed. The simulated updraft volume peaked at 1425 and the simulated downdraft volume maximized 5 min later, when the mesocyclone formed. Simulated reflectivities showed no hook echo and horizontal winds for different height at mid-low levels had a different cyclonic shear at 1430, favorable to mesocyclone formation. Based on the simulated results, the region of positively charged graupel ascended resulting from the region of high liquid water content was lifted by the strong updraft, forming a mid-level strong positive charge region. A lower negative charge region formed by the inductive charging mechanism of collisions between graupel and droplets at the bottom of the cloud, conducive to positive cloud-to-ground flashes.     

Thermodynamical Structure of Atmosphere during Pre-monsoon Thunderstorm Season over Kharagpur as Revealed by STORM Data

Variation of atmospheric thermodynamical structure parameters between days of thunderstorm occurrence and non-occurrence is presented based on data sets obtained during Severe Thunderstorm-Observations and Regional Modeling (STORM) experiments conducted over Kharagpur (22.3°N, 87.2°E) in pre-monsoon season of 2009 and 2010. Potential instability (stable to neutral) is noticed in the lower layers and enhanced (suppressed) convection in the middle troposphere during thunderstorm (non-thunderstorm) days. Low-level jets are observed during all days of the experimental period but with higher intensity on thunderstorm days. Convective available potential energy (CAPE) builds up until thunderstorm occurrence and becomes dissipated soon after, whereas convective inhibition (CIN) is greatly decreased prior to the event on thunderstorm days. In contrast, higher CAPE and CIN are noticed on non-thunderstorm days. Analysis of thermodynamic indices showed that indices including moisture [humidity index (HI) and dew point temperature at 850 hPa (DPT850)] are useful in differentiating thunderstorm from non-thunderstorm days. The present study reveals that significant moisture availability in the lower troposphere in the presence of convective instability conditions results in thunderstorm occurrence at Kharagpur.     

Recent Results from Studies of Electric Discharges in the Mesosphere

The paper reviews recent advances in studies of electric discharges in the stratosphere and mesosphere above thunderstorms, and their effects on the atmosphere. The primary focus is on the sprite discharge occurring in the mesosphere, which is the most commonly observed high altitude discharge by imaging cameras from the ground, but effects on the upper atmosphere by electromagnetic radiation from lightning are also considered. During the past few years, co-ordinated observations over Southern Europe have been made of a wide range of parameters related to sprites and their causative thunderstorms. Observations have been complemented by the modelling of processes ranging from the electric discharge to perturbations of trace gas concentrations in the upper atmosphere. Observations point to significant energy deposition by sprites in the neutral atmosphere as observed by infrasound waves detected at up to 1000 km distance, whereas elves and lightning have been shown significantly to affect ionization and heating of the lower ionosphere/mesosphere. Studies of the thunderstorm systems powering high altitude discharges show the important role of intracloud (IC) lightning in sprite generation as seen by the first simultaneous observations of IC activity, sprite activity and broadband, electromagnetic radiation in the VLF range. Simulations of sprite ignition suggest that, under certain conditions, energetic electrons in the runaway regime are generated in streamer discharges. Such electrons may be the source of X- and Gamma-rays observed in lightning, thunderstorms and the so-called Terrestrial Gamma-ray Flashes (TGFs) observed from space over thunderstorm regions. Model estimates of sprite perturbations to the global atmospheric electric circuit, trace gas concentrations and atmospheric dynamics suggest significant local perturbations, and possibly significant meso-scale effects, but negligible global effects.     

Understanding the dynamical-microphysical-electrical processes associated with severe thunderstorms over the Beijing metropolitan region

The Dynamical-microphysical-electrical Processes in Severe Thunderstorms and Lightning Hazards(STORM973)project conducted coordinated comprehensive field observations of thunderstorms in the Beijing metropolitan region(BMR)during the warm season from 2014 to 2018.The aim of the project was to understand how dynamical,microphysical and electrical processes interact in severe thunderstorms in the BMR,and how to assimilate lightning data in numerical weather prediction models to improve severe thunderstorm forecasts.The platforms used in the field campaign included the Beijing Lightning Network(BLNET,consisting of 16 stations),2 X-band dual linear polarimetric Doppler radars,and 4 laser raindrop spectrometers.The collaboration also made use of the China Meteorological Administration’s mesoscale meteorological observation network in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region.Although diverse thunderstorm types were documented,it was found that squall lines and multicell storms were the two major categories of severe thunderstorms with frequent lightning activity and extreme rainfall or unexpected local short-duration heavy rainfall resulting in inundations in the central urban area,influenced by the terrain and environmental conditions.The flash density maximums were found in eastern Changping District,central and eastern Shunyi District,and the central urban area of Beijing,suggesting that the urban heat island effect has a crucial role in the intensification of thunderstorms over Beijing.In addition,the flash rate associated with super thunderstorms can reach hundreds of flashes per minute in the central city regions.The super(5%of the total),strong(35%),and weak(60%)thunderstorms contributed about 37%,56%,and 7%to the total flashes in the BMR,respectively.Owing to the close connection between lightning activity and the thermodynamic and microphysical characteristics of the thunderstorms,the lightning flash rate can be used as an indicator of severe weather events,such as hail and short-duration heavy rainfall.Lightning data can also be assimilated into numerical weather prediction models to help improve the forecasting of severe convection and precipitation at the cloud-resolved scale,through adjusting or correcting the thermodynamic and microphysical parameters of the model.     

Lightning activity and precipitation structure of hailstorms

By using the cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning location data from the lightning detection network of He- nan Province, surface Doppler radar data and standard orbit data of PR, TMI and LIS on TRMM satellite, the spatial and temporal characteristics of CG lightning flashes in 10 severe hailstorms are analyzed. The results show that the percentage of CG lightning in these hailstorms is high with an average value of 45.5%. There is a distinct increase in CG flash rate during the rapid development stage of hailstorms. The hailstone falling corresponds to an active positive flash period, and the increase of CG flash rate is generally accompanied with a decrease of –CG flash rate. The flash rate declines rapidly during the dissipating stage of hailstorms. The precipitation structure and lightning activity in two typical hail- storms are studied in detail. It is found that strong convective cells with reflectivity greater than 30dBZ mainly are situated in the front region of hailstorms, whereas the trailing stratiform region is in the rear part of the hailstorms. The maximum heights of echo top are higher than 14 km. Convective rain con- tributes much more rainfall to the total than stratiform rain, and the convective rain takes about 85% and 97% of the total in the two cases, respectively. Total lightning in the hailstorms is very active with the flash rate up to 183 fl/min and 55 fl/min, respectively. The results also indicate that most lightning flashes occurred in the echo region greater than 30 dBZ and its immediate periphery. The probability of lightning occurrence is 20 times higher in the convective region than in the stratiform region. The result suggests that the lightning information is helpful to the identification of convective rain region. The linear relationship between flash rate and ice water content is disclosed primarily.