热水条件下透辉石的摩擦本构特征

为了研究下地壳主要造岩矿物之一的辉石在摩擦滑动中的力学性质,本文选择辉石中的透辉石作为实验样品,在约200 MPa有效正应力（30 MPa孔隙水压）及100~600℃的热水条件下进行了速度阶跃摩擦滑动实验,在滑动开始后将剪切滑动速率在0.122 μm·s^-1和1.22 μm·s^-1之间进行切换来确定摩擦滑动对速度变化的响应.通过实验发现：透辉石在102~200℃表现为速度强化,随着温度升高,在约215℃附近从速度强化转变为速度弱化.在310℃以上,速度弱化的程度受温度的影响不大,而且摩擦本构参数a值和b值随温度的变化趋势相同.对变形样品的显微观测发现,与其速度强化行为相对应的微观变形主要以数条平行的R1剪切为主,卸样时造成的裂纹集中在R1剪切内部,形态长而曲折;与其速度弱化行为相对应的断层泥内部,剪切带变窄且数量明显增加,在内部互相连接,在边界附近多发育B剪切,卸样时形成的裂纹大量存在于B剪切带与R1剪切附近,形态短且平直.     

汶川地震剪切滑动面微-纳米级颗粒的特征、形成机制及地震意义

在2008年汶川5.12大地震同震主地表破裂带—北川-映秀破裂带中,多处断层滑动面上可见到具有强烈变形特征的薄层断层泥.在地表垂直位移量较大的西南段和东北段,选取八角庙、和尚坪和沙坝探槽中的断层泥为研究对象,利用立体镜和扫描电镜对断层泥的组构特征和Y剪切面上的微-纳米级颗粒进行形态和结构研究.观测研究结果显示,汶川5.12大地震的同震断层泥发育有明显的Y和R剪切和平直擦痕.断层滑动摩擦面磨损、研磨、粉末化则是汶川同震断层泥中微-纳米级颗粒形成的主要途径.地震断层滑动会产生摩擦热,但并不排除热分解在断层泥滑动面上纳米粒子形成过程中的重要作用.断层摩擦滑动面上普遍存有微-纳米单体及其复合体两类颗粒,微-纳米颗粒形态有球状、蚕虫状、饼状和块状等.其主要结构是散布状和堆积状结构,但也有少量条带状和层状结构,而结构单元之间常有空隙,显现松散接触.在条带状和层状结构中,仅有异化的单体颗粒,而在散布状和堆积状结构中除了主要是由单体颗粒异化形成的蚕虫状,块状和圆饼状形态的复体颗粒外,还有未变形的单体球状颗粒.Y剪切面上微-纳米颗粒的散布状、堆积状、条带状和层状结构都是在相同的地震快速变形过程中极端不平衡条件下形成的.条带状和层状结构是塑性变形,而散布状和堆积状则是脆性变形,不连续的动态摩擦(断层粘滑)是松散结构形成的主要机制.汶川地震同震断层滑动面微-纳米级颗粒的结构是地震断层滑动留下的地质形迹(不是假玄武玻璃),是地震断层滑动的记录,它可作为判定古地震断层的一种标准.     

汶川地震北川-映秀断裂北段断层泥显微构造和黏土矿物特征及其意义

汶川2008年M S8.0大地震同震地表破裂带中,近地表断层滑动面内多处分布了薄层断层泥。选取位于地表垂直位移量较大地段的北川沙坝探槽中的断层泥为研究对象,使用立体镜、光学显微镜和X光衍射等对断层泥微结构特征及其矿物成分进行详细的分析。结果表明:汶川地震地表破裂带的断层泥中发育Y-剪切、R1-剪切(与Y-剪切的交角14°)、R2-剪切、P-剪切以及张裂隙和书斜式构造等局部化脆性变形的特征显微构造。此外,断层泥中还有发育良好的P-叶理,碎屑颗粒的拉长和不对称拖尾构造等类似于散布的韧性变形特征。但是,它们仅局限在2条平行的Y-剪切之间发育,应当是断层同一滑动事件的产物。显微构造特征揭示了汶川地震破裂带的逆冲滑动性质,强烈变形的断层泥带较窄,仅约3mm,表明同震滑动明显地局限在一个窄的滑动带内。断层泥的石英和长石含量小于围岩,而黏土矿物含量高于围岩,说明来自围岩的长石和石英由于同震断层滑动摩擦使其部分转变为黏土矿物或黏土粒级的物质。断层泥中的伊利石含量高于围岩,伊利石/蒙脱石混层则低于围岩,这种黏土矿物组成成分的差异,可能是由于地震同震断层滑动摩擦增温(不排除溶液化学作用的参与),使部分伊利石/蒙脱石混层转化为伊利石。这些研究结果为探讨断层滑动性质提供了一种判定标准。     

基岩区断层黏滑与蠕滑的地质标志 和岩石力学实验证据

文中总结了基岩断层带黏滑与蠕滑的地质标志与岩石力学实验证据,分析了控制黏滑与蠕滑的物理机制。断层带内的矿物组成、矿物变形机制、流体作用和断层带变形方式等是控制黏滑与蠕滑的主要因素。富含黏土矿物的断层泥具有速度强化型摩擦滑动,控制着断层蠕滑,而以方解石、石英、长石及辉石等造岩矿物为主的断层泥在大陆浅源地震的震源深度条件下具备黏滑条件。脆性破裂伴随的扩容过程是断层黏滑的必要条件,而压实、碎裂和塑性剪切变形形成的叶理和小褶皱对应于蠕滑。在流体作用下,压溶使孔隙和微裂隙愈合,有利于断层强度的恢复和断层闭锁,既是断层发生不稳定滑动的根源,也是断层带局部存在高压流体的条件,而在流体作用下的退变质反应与水解反应生成黏土矿物和层状及环状硅酸盐矿物,不仅降低了断层带的强度,还导致断层向蠕滑转变。断层带内均匀分布多个剪切面和较宽的变形带对应于蠕滑,局部化的R剪切及Y剪切、窄变形带和摩擦镜面对应于黏滑。     

油气区断层带摩擦强度研究进展

油气区断层再活动会造成过断层井的井壁不稳定,增加生产井剪切套损风险及油气渗漏风险甚至诱发地震.浅埋断层带中广泛发育的断层泥对断层摩擦滑动具有重要影响,在特定地质条件下断层泥对断层带摩擦强度具有显著的弱化作用.传统的断层稳定性评价方法多数采用断层摩擦强度的均质模型.然而大量研究表明,断层泥受多种因素的影响在空间上表现出明显的非均质特征,如何对油气区断层泥摩擦强度非均质性进行定量表征,实现更精确的断层稳定性评价,对降低油田开发风险具有实际意义.文中介绍了断层带摩擦强度研究的原理、方法,通过梳理国内外的最新研究进展,从内因和外因两个角度详细总结了不同条件下断层泥变形机制以及摩擦强度的演化规律,其中内因包括黏土矿物类型以及黏土矿物含量,外因包括孔隙流体、有效正应力以及温度.同时,基于断层带摩擦强度的理论研究成果以及当前国际上常用的断层稳定性评价方法,建立了考虑断层摩擦强度非均质性的断层稳定性定量评价模型.最后,对断层带摩擦强度研究的未来发展趋势进行了分析.     

热水条件下黑云母断层泥的摩擦强度与稳定性

黑云母是自然界常见的层状硅酸盐矿物,其摩擦系数不高且化学稳定性好,对其摩擦性质的关注可能会对弱断层的研究有所帮助.本次工作选取的实验温度条件对应于典型地壳强度模型中脆塑性转化带的范围,为300 ℃和400 ℃.有效正应力为200 MPa,孔隙水压包括10 MPa和30 MPa,在此条件下对黑云母模拟断层泥进行摩擦实验研究.实验得出黑云母的摩擦系数平均在0.36左右.速度依赖性随温度升高速度弱化的程度增强,表现为300 ℃为十分微弱的速度弱化,而在400 ℃出现了黏滑行为,代表了更强的速度弱化.显微结构中同时出现了脆性剪切变形和塑性扭折变形,但决定宏观力学性质的显然是脆性剪切变形.在黑云母存在的情况下,本研究的实验结果有助于理解大陆地壳脆塑性转化带中地震的可能性和弱断层深部的变形机制、宏观力学行为以及地震活动.     

隐伏走滑断层破裂扩展特征的实验研究

通过模拟实验研究了基岩中走滑断层在上覆沉积层中的破裂扩展特征,利用白光数字散斑相关方法分析了沉积层表面变形场的演化过程,重点研究了基岩断层位移和沉积层厚度的影响。结果表明,在沉积层厚度一定的情况下,随基岩断层的滑动,沉积层中围绕断层投影线逐渐形成一个变形带以及由张性破裂和剪切破裂组成的破裂带,基岩断层的位移越大,沉积层中的变形带越宽、变形越强烈;但当基岩断层位移超过某一临界值后,变形带宽度将保持稳定,只是变形随断层位移增加而更集中。对于同样的基岩断层位移,沉积层厚度越大,受基岩断层控制的变形破裂带越宽,即基岩断层的影响范围越大;但当沉积层厚度超过某一临界值时,沉积层的变形发生了变化,沉积层表面并不存在与基岩断层走向一致的变形带,而是发育了较大尺度、与基岩断层走向斜交的张剪性破裂带。实验结果意味着,临界断层位移和临界沉积层厚度对于确定隐伏断层发震产生的地表变形和破坏具有重要意义     

北京北石城断层带与河防口断层带断层岩石显微构造研究

本文论述了糜棱岩类与碎裂岩类的变形特征,它们各自代表了不同的成因机制,反映了断层带经历过早期韧性剪切和后期脆性破裂的发育历史。根据断层岩石的显微构造特征,估算了断层带发育过程中两个阶段的温度、压力、应变速率、差异应力大小和方位,并讨论了韧性剪切带、地壳中弹塑性过渡带与大陆地震多发层之间的关系     

六盘山东麓断裂断层泥的组构特征及其意义

本文采用宏观与微观相结合的方法 ,研究六盘山东麓断裂的滑动方式。结果表明 :(1)根据断层泥组构特征 ,六盘山东麓断裂可划分为北、中、南 3段 ,这与前人宏观分段结果相一致 ;(2 )北段断层泥局部强烈变形 ,发育牵引褶皱 ,吕德剪切角 (R1)介于 11°～ 2 6° ,以及伊利石无明显的优选方位组构 ,表明该段断层活动是以粘滑为主的左旋走滑运动 ;(3)中、南段断层泥普遍变形 ,吕德剪切角 (R1)一般小于 11° ,P叶理、带状褶皱和肠状构造发育 ,以及伊利石复杂的优选方位组构 ,显示该断层的活动是以蠕滑为主的多期逆冲滑动     

剪切破裂与粘滑——浅源强震发震机制的研究

周口店花岗闪长岩的高温高压三轴实验和理论分析表明,剪切破裂和摩擦滑移具有类似的孕育过程和发生机制。剪切破裂贯通强度就是一种摩擦强度。剪切破裂和摩擦滑移各自都有渐进式和突发式之分。突发式摩擦滑移是已有断层的粘滑滑移。突发式剪切破裂则是完整岩石的初始粘滑滑移。考虑到地壳温度随深度增加,完整岩石剪裂强震要求较高的围压,因此,多数浅源强震的发震方式很可能是已有断层的粘滑     

Microstructural features of fault gouges from Tianjing-shan-Xiangshan fault zone and their geological implications

Detailed observation of the microstructural features of 11 fault gouge and 3 fault breccia samples collected from Tianjingshan-Xiangshan fault zone has revealed that fault gouge can be classified into 3 types: flow banded granular gouge, foliated gouge and massive gouge. The determination of the shape preferred orientation (SPO) of survivor grains in fault gouges indicates that the foliated gouge displays a profound SPO inclined to the shear zone boundary, similar to theP-foliation; flow banded granular gouge displays a SPO parallel to the shear zone boundary, while massive fault gouge and fault breccia display a random SPO. All these fault gouges fall in different fields of shear rate ternary diagram.     

Parallel 3-D Simulation of a Fault Gouge Using the Lattice Solid Model

Despite the insight gained from 2-D particle models, and given that the dynamics of crustal faults occur in 3-D space, the question remains, how do the 3-D fault gouge dynamics differ from those in 2-D? Traditionally, 2-D modeling has been preferred over 3-D simulations because of the computational cost of solving 3-D problems. However, modern high performance computing architectures, combined with a parallel implementation of the Lattice Solid Model (LSM), provide the opportunity to explore 3-D fault micro-mechanics and to advance understanding of effective constitutive relations of fault gouge layers. In this paper, macroscopic friction values from 2-D and 3-D LSM simulations, performed on an SGI Altix 3700 super-cluster, are compared. Two rectangular elastic blocks of bonded particles, with a rough fault plane and separated by a region of randomly sized non-bonded gouge particles, are sheared in opposite directions by normally-loaded driving plates. The results demonstrate that the gouge particles in the 3-D models undergo significant out-of-plane motion during shear. The 3-D models also exhibit a higher mean macroscopic friction than the 2-D models for varying values of interparticle friction. 2-D LSM gouge models have previously been shown to exhibit accelerating energy release in simulated earthquake cycles, supporting the Critical Point hypothesis. The 3-D models are shown to also display accelerating energy release, and good fits of power law time-to-failure functions to the cumulative energy release are obtained.     

断层物质测年的热释光研究

断层物质ＴＬ测年的关键，是断裂运动产生的温压效应能否使断裂带内某些矿物原贮存的ＴＬ能量完全释放而“归零”。为此，进行了不同条件的高温、高压和位移速率变化等的模拟断裂运动的实验。结果表明，断裂运动产生的摩擦增温是使断层面上矿物ＴＬ强度减弱的主要因素。讨论了摩擦增温值与断裂运动时剪应力大小、断层泥厚度和断层位移间的关系，并得到了野外断层面上实际测试的证实。据此研究成果，还对小湾坝区Ｆ＿７断裂的活动时代进行了测定     

断层泥在孕震过程中的作用

本文用粘弹性理论,探讨了老断层失稳扩展型地震的孕育过程中,断层泥的作用问题.得到了如下结果:即使区域背景场和扰动场保持不变,断层局部应力场仍会因断层泥的蠕变而变化.其中切向应力分量σ0_ηη(t),在其它所有分量都缓慢衰减的同时缓慢增大.一旦这个应力分量在断层尖端附近的极大值点,积累至大于岩石的断裂强度,断层的失稳扩展便会从这点发生.与空腔断层相比,断层泥使σ0_ηη(t)的突变过程变成了缓慢渐近过程,并使σ0_ηη(t)的渐近值有所降低,因而会推迟和减少地震的发生.文中还讨论了断层失稳扩展方向等问题.      

断层泥的再生显微结构特征及其地震地质意义

三轴剪切摩擦实验后的断层泥与天然断层泥的再生显微结构特征研究表明，断层泥的显微结构特征与断层滑动方式之间有一定的关系，稳滑使断层泥变形均匀，产生低角度剪切（＜１４°）、布丁构造和颗粒碎裂流动。粘滑使断层泥局部发生强烈变形、高角度剪切（＞１４°）和碎粒出现随机裂纹等。断层泥的再生显微结构特征可用作鉴别古地震的存在     

Evolution of the Gouge Particle Size Distribution: A Markov Model

—The hydrologic and mechanical properties of faults are determined by their internal structures and zoning due to fracturing, grain breakage and diagenesis. The proposed model in this study is a first step in the development of a more complete model of fault internal structure. It describes the evolution of the gouge particle size distribution (PSD) with shear induced grain breakage within a small, assumed uniform volume element. A Markov formalism is applied for binary breakage within each time step over the many time steps constituting the evolution. The particle size, strain- and stress-dependent breaking probability is constructed based on physical arguments and data on natural and simulated gouge PSDs. The model is calibrated by using the results of on Ottawa sand PSD experiments. A perfect fit is obtained between experimental and numerically simulated PSDs for a range of normal effective stress (NES). Results of the numerical simulations capture the bimodal form of gouge PSD and also clearly define two different breakage mechanisms. The gouge development behavior makes a dramatic transition as the normal effective stress exceeds the grain crushing stress of the gouge mineral.¶For a more complete intrafault structure analysis, the interplay of diagenesis and the mechanics of grain breakage can be integrated into a single mechano-chemical model of the type presented here. The model proposed here has great potential for predicting the complex roles of faults as seals or fluid conduits.     

Acoustic and vibration precursors from shear-slip characteristics of simulated zigzag-type gouge fault

Earthquake precursors are vitally important for warning and risk evaluation, but shedding light on them is a complex task for seismologists and geologists. We attempted to illuminate the precursory rules of fault failure by traditional biaxial-direction shear tests for a zigzag-type gouge with different size and arrangement of simulated faults manufactured from polymethyl methacrylate materials. Shear stress, acoustic emissions, and vibration signals were recorded and comparatively analyzed. Two important findings were obtained: (1) the linearly increasing trend of shear stress peaks generated by foreshocks may indicate the foreshock effect before a larger earthquake triggered by natural fault gouge failure; and (2) four kinds of earthquake precursors were discovered, and earthquake intensity and precursors may be dependent on the time of macro-fracture formation and the quantity of micro-fractures initiated before mainshock. The study contributes to interpreting earthquake shear-slip characteristics and may even help provide warnings of failure and instability.     

海原断裂带断层泥摩擦特性的研究

用双剪法对海原断裂带5个点的13种断层泥的摩擦滑动特征进行的实验研究表明,海原断裂带的断层泥的存在有助于消除粘滑与增大摩擦强度,五个点断层泥的摩擦系数平均值分别是0.760(景泰),0.728(哈思山),0.669(大沟门),0.644(剌儿沟),0.684(蔡祥堡)。     

THE GEOLOGICAL AND ROCK MECHANICAL DISTINCTION EVIDENCE BETWEEN STICK-SLIP AND CREEP IN HOST ROCK SEGMENTS OF FAULT

Paleo-seismic and fault activity are hard to distinguish in host rock areas compared with soft sedimentary segments of fault. However, fault frictional experiments could obtain the conditions of stable and unstable slide, as well as the microstructures of fault gouge, which offer some identification marks between stick-slip and creep of fault. We summarized geological and rock mechanical distinction evidence between stick-slip and creep in host rock segments of fault, and analyzed the physical mechanisms which controlled the behavior of stick-slip and creep. The chemical composition of fault gouge is most important to control stick-slip and creep. Gouge composed by weak minerals, such as clay mineral, has velocity weakening behavior, which causes stable slide of fault. Gouge with rock-forming minerals, such as calcite, quartz, feldspar, pyroxene, has stick-slip behavior under condition of focal depth. To the gouge with same chemical composition, the deformation mechanism controls the frictional slip. It is essential condition to stick slip for brittle fracture companied by dilatation, but creep is controlled by compaction and cataclasis as well as ductile shear with foliation and small fold. However, under fluid conditions, pressure solution which healed the fractures and caused strength recovery of fault, is the original reason of unstable slide, and also resulted in locking of fault with high pore pressure in core of fault zone. Contrast with that, rock-forming minerals altered to phyllosilicates in the gouges by fluid flow through degenerative reaction and hydrolysis reaction, which produced low friction fault and transformations to creep. The creep process progressively developed several wide shear zones including of R, Y, T, P shear plane that comprise gouge zones embedded into wide damage zones, which caused small earthquake distributed along wide fault zones with focal mechanism covered by normal fault, strike-slip fault and reverse fault. However, the stick-slip produced mirror-like slide surfaces with very narrow gouges along R shear plane and Y shear plane, which caused small earthquake distributed along narrow fault zones with single kind of focal mechanism.     

Internal structures and high-velocity frictional properties of a bedding-parallel carbonate fault at Xiaojiaqiao outcrop activated by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

This paper reports internal structures of a bedding-parallel fault in Permian limestone at Xiaojiaqiao outcrop that was moved by about 0.5 m during the 2008 M_W7.9 Wenchuan earthquake. The fault is located about 3 km to the south from the middle part of Yingxiu-Beichuan fault, a major fault in the Longmenshan fault system that was moved during the earthquake. The outcrop is also located at Anxian transfer zone between the northern and central segments of Yingxiu-Beichuan fault where fault system is complex. Thus the fault is an example of subsidiary faults activated by Wenchuan earthquake. The fault has a strike of 243° or N63°E and a dip of 38°NW and is nearly optimally oriented for thrust motion, in contrast to high-angle coseismic faults at most places. Surface outcrop and two shallow drilling studies reveal that the fault zone is several centimeters wide at most and that the coseismic slip zone during Wenchuan earthquake is about 1 mm thick. Fault zone contains foliated cataclasite, fault breccia, black gouge and yellowish gouge. Many clasts of foliated cataclasite and black gouge contained in fault breccia indicate multiple slip events along this fault. But fossils on both sides of fault do not indicate clear age difference and overall displacement along this fault should not be large. We also report results from high-velocity friction experiments conducted on yellowish gouge from the fault zone using a rotary shear low to high-velocity frictional testing apparatus. Dry experiments at normal stresses of 0.4 to 1.8 MPa and at slip rates of 0.08 to 1.35 m/s reveal dramatic slip weakening from the peak friction coefficient of around 0.6 to very low steady-state friction coefficient of 0.1-0.2. Slip weakening parameters of this carbonate fault zone are similar to those of clayey fault gouge from Yingxiu-Beichuan fault at Hongkou outcrop and from Pingxi fault zone. Our experimental result will provide a condition for triggering movement of subsidiary faults or off-fault damage during a large earthquake.