MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF VARIATIONS ON STABLE ISOTOPIC RATIOS IN FALLING RAINDROPS

The variations of stable isotopic contents in falling raindrops are not only influenced by thehumidity conditions, but also by the stable isotopic contents in atmospheric vapor to a certainextent. If there is a difference between the isotopic contents in the vapor of the surrounding air andat the surface of the raindrops, the move of the isotopic contents from high to low values will beproduced. Usually. influenced by the evaporation process, the stable isotopic ratios in raindropsare constantly increased in the unsaturated atmosphere. The less the atmospheric humidity, themore obvious the increased range. As the enrichment rate of stable isotopes in raindrops is equal tothe outward isotopic move rate. the "pseudo-equilibrium state" appears. The influence ofevaporation on stable isotopic contents disappears in the saturated atmosphere, so that themagnitude of isotopic ratio in raindrops is dependent on the isotopic exchange between theraindrops and the surrounding atmosphere.     

Humidity Effect and Its Influence on the Seasonal Distribution of Precipitation δ18O in Monsoon Regions

The humidity effect, namely the markedly positive correlation between the stable isotopic ratio in precipitation and the dew-point deficit △Td in the atmosphere, is put forward firstly and the relationships between the δ18O in precipitation and △Td are analyzed for the Urumqi and Kunming stations, which have completely different climatic characteristics. Although the seasonal variations in δ18O and △Td exhibit differences between the two stations, their humidity effect is notable. The correlation coefficient and its confidence level of the humidity effect are higher than those of the amount effect at Kunming, showing the marked influence of the humidity conditions in the atmosphere on stable isotopes in precipitation.Using a kinetic model for stable isotopic fractionation, and according to the seasonal distribution of meanmonthly temperature at 500 hPa at Kunming, the variations of the δ18O in condensate in cloud aresimulated. A very good agreement between the seasonal variations of the simulated mean δ18O and themean monthly temperature at 500 hPa is obtained, showing that the oxygen stable isotope in condensateof cloud experiences a temperature effect. Such a result is markedly different from the amount effect atthe ground. Based on the simulations of seasonal variations of δ18O in falling raindrops, it can be foundthat, in the dry season from November to April, the increasing trend with falling distance of δ18O in fallingraindrops corresponds remarkably to the great ATd, showing a strong evaporation enrichment function infalling raindrops; however, in the wet season from May to October, the δ18O in falling raindrops displaysan unapparent increase corresponding to the small ATd, except in May. By comparing the simulated meanδ18O at the ground with the actual monthly δ18O in precipitation, we see distinctly that the two monthlyδ18O variations agree very well. On average, the δ18O values are relatively lower because of the highlymoist air, heavy rainfall, small △Td and weak evaporation enrichment function of stable isotopes in thefalling raindrops, under the influence of vapor from the oceans; but they are relatively higher because of the dry air, light rainfall, great △Td and strong evaporation enrichment function in falling raindrops, under the control of the continental air mass. Therefore, the δ18O in precipitation at Kunming can be used to indicate the humidity situation in the atmosphere to a certain degree, and thus indicate the intensity of the precipitation and the strength of the monsoon indirectly. The humidity effect changes not only the magnitude of the stable isotopic ratio in precipitation but also its seasonal distribution due to its influence on the strength of the evaporation enrichment of stable isotopes in falling raindrops and the direction of the net mass transfer of stable isotopes between the atmosphere and the raindrops. Consequently, it is inferred that the humidity effect is probably one of the foremost causes generating the amount effect.     

云下雨滴蒸发产生硫酸盐气溶胶速率的研究

云下雨滴蒸发是雨滴下降过程中重要的物理过程，特别是当云下相对湿度较低时更为明显。本文建立了考虑雨滴蒸发的云下雨水酸化的物理化学模式，用以研究云下雨滴蒸发作用对各种大小雨滴及雨水酸化的影响，并估算了由于小雨滴的完全蒸发进入到大气中的硫酸盐气溶胶的生成速率。计算结果表明:这种小雨滴的完全蒸发使雨滴内化学反应生成的硫酸盐结晶进入大气，在降水初期云下相对湿度较小时，形成硫酸盐气溶胶的速率可达1% h-1，与气粒转化速率相当。     

Cloud microphysical and precipitation responses to a large-scale forcing in the tropical deep convective regime

Summary Cloud microphysical and precipitation responses to a large-scale forcing in the tropical deep convective regime are investigated based on hourly zonally-averaged, vertically-integrated simulation data from a two-dimensional coupled ocean-cloud resolving atmosphere model. The model is forced by the large-scale vertical velocity and zonal wind observed and derived from TOGA COARE for a 50-day period. The accretion of cloud water by graupel induces growth of graupel that enhances raindrops through its melting during a weak-forcing period, whereas the large deposition rate of vapor associated with a large upper-tropospheric upward motion causes growth of snow from the conversion of cloud ice and enhancement of graupel from the accretion of snow during a strong-forcing period. The local changes of raindrops and graupel switch from the negative to positive values as the forcing strengthens in the weak-forcing case, whereas the variations of cloud hydrometeors are not sensitive to the strength of the forcing in the strong-forcing case. Phase analysis indicates that cloud water leads the surface rain rate by 1 hour. The surface rain rate can be calculated based on the conservation of vapor and cloud hydrometeors and the budget of raindrops. The vapor source and local changes of cloud hydrometeors could have impacts in the calculation of the surface rain rate. The vapor source determines the surface rain rate in the strong-forcing case whereas the cloud variations could become important in the weak-forcing case. In the budget of raindrops, the sum of the collection of cloud water by raindrops, the melting of graupel, and the evaporation of raindrops determines the surface rain rate in the strong-forcing case whereas the other rain-related microphysical processes become important in the weak-forcing case.     

2017年冬季长沙一次重度霾污染天气过程气象成因分析

利用空气质量监测资料、常规气象资料,根据气象条件的水平和垂直扩散能力,以及地面湿度和动力条件等分析了2017年1月27—29日长沙地区这次严重空气污染事件的污染特征。结果表明:污染发生时段,南支槽不断加深东移,槽前势力强盛的西南气流将孟加拉湾一带的水汽向长沙地区输送,进一步增加了该地区的空气湿度。同时,持续东移的脊前暖平流对长沙中低层大气增温有显著影响,为稳定的大气层结创造了有利条件。长沙处于弱高压的底后部,受大范围的弱鞍型场及均压场控制,地面有暖倒槽发展,且由于高压较弱,导致地面和低空的风速较小,不利于污染物的水平扩散,同时有利于夜间地面的辐射降温。稳定的大气环流形势为霾天气和严重污染提供了持续稳定的大气环境场,逆温结构和稳定温度层结在一定程度上减弱了大气在垂直方向上的湍流交换和热力对流,大气中的污染颗粒不易扩散,为此次污染事件的维持、加剧提供了重要的气象条件。长沙地区处在罗霄山脉和雪峰山脉之间的湘江故地,受周边地形阻挡的影响,污染物在下沉气流的控制下聚集到长沙地区后,很难通过水平输送离开,这也是造成此次霾污染的原因之一。     

积雨云微物理过程的数值模拟——(一)微物理模式

本文提出了一个比较完整的积雨云参数化微物理模式,推导了26种主要微物理过程中水汽、云滴比水量和冰晶、雨滴、霰、雹的群体比水量和比浓度的转化率,它们包括凝结(凝华)、蒸发、粒子间的碰并(撞冻)、冰晶核化、繁生、冻结、融化、云—雨、冰—霰、霰—雹的自动转化以及雹的干湿增长等。     

一次冻雨过程云物理特征的数值模拟

运用中尺度数值模式WRF3.5.1对2011年1月1日贵州境内的一次冻雨天气过程进行了数值模拟,研究了本次过程的大气层结、冻雨区云系的宏微观结构和云物理特征,初步分析了冻雨形成的云微物理过程和成因。结果表明,贵州境内的冻雨区(26°N~29°N)具有冷性和部分"冷—暖—冷"的温度层结,在高层没有显著的冰相粒子,冻雨区是相对较强的水汽辐合中心,丰富的水汽输送在冷性的环境条件下形成云滴,进而碰并产生雨滴,过冷雨水主要通过暖雨过程形成;雨滴继续下落至近地层并保持过冷雨水形式,最后接触到低于0°C的物体或地面,迅速冻结而产生地面冻雨。     

Short timescale air-sea coupling in the tropical deep convective regime

Summary The relationship between surface rainfall rate and sea-surface temperature (SST) over tropical cloudy areas is revisited, and associated air-sea interaction processes are investigated based on hourly grid simulation data over cloudy areas from a two-dimensional coupled ocean-cloud resolving atmosphere model. A cloud-weighted data analysis shows that surface evaporation flux decreases with increasing SST and is one order of magnitude smaller than the residual between moisture convergence and condensation, playing a negligible role in moisture budget. Moisture convergence determines the surface rainfall rate by determining vapor condensation and deposition rates. Ocean mixed-layer thermal budget shows that the atmospheric surface flux is a major process responsible for SST variation while thermal advection and thermal entrainment play a secondary role. The results indicate that atmospheric impacts on the ocean are important whereas oceanic impacts on the atmosphere are not, in the tropical air-sea system, on short timescales. Thus, the relationship between surface rainfall rate and SST over tropical cloudy areas is not physically important. Further estimates indicate that the surface evaporation flux and residual between moisture convergence and condensation could have the same order of magnitude in daily-mean moisture budget.     

不同太平洋年代际振荡和ENSO位相下大气水分收支变化对北半球冬季太平洋蒸发量的影响

本文利用OAFlux资料研究了1958~2015年北半球冬季太平洋蒸发量在不同厄尔尼诺—南方涛动（ENSO）和太平洋年代际振荡（PDO）位相下的分布特征,并从水汽收支的角度分析了蒸发量异常的成因,结果表明:ENSO主要影响热带东太平洋、副热带西北太平洋和中纬度北太平洋中部的蒸发量。El Ni?o（La Ni?a）时水汽在北太平洋中部异常辐散（辐合）,有利于当地大气水汽含量减小（增大）,造成蒸发量增大（减小）;副热带西北太平洋异常的水汽辐合（辐散）有利于蒸发量减小（增大）;除此以外,蒸发量在热带东太平洋蒸发量增大（减小）则主要是降水量增大（减小）导致。与此同时,ENSO对上述海区蒸发量的影响还受到PDO的调控,当PDO处于暖（冷）位相时,El Ni?o（La Ni?a）造成蒸发量异常程度在中纬度北太平洋中部显著增大,这主要是由降水量增大（减小）引起的大气水汽含量减小（增大）所致,此时对应着风暴轴异常增大（减小）;当PDO处于冷（暖）位相时,El Ni?o（La Ni?a）造成的蒸发量异常程度在副热带西北太平洋和热带东太平洋显著增大,而这与湿度变化引起的水汽平流异常程度增大紧密相关。     

西藏地区GPS水汽资料与降水量之间的对比分析

利用2008年7月份西藏地区地基GPS遥感大气水汽总量的观测资料,研究了大气水汽总量与日平均温度、相对湿度和降水量的关系。研究结果表明:1海拔高度对站点上空水汽总量的影响比较明显,一般情况下海拔越高水汽总量越低;其次高原上某地的降水转化率高低与该地所处的长期天气背景有关2.水汽总量值与实际降水量的大小之间并不是一种简单的正比关系,水汽梯度值和水汽源源不断地输送对降水量的大小有重要影响。3.日平均温度和GPS大气可降水量跟相对湿度之间呈反相关;降水往往出现在高温高湿后面,这种现象可以用湿旋转效应解释;最低温度跟GPS大气可降水量之间有良好的正相关。      

On the coupling between vegetation and the atmosphere

Recent studies suggest that vegetation can drive large-scale atmospheric circulations and substantially influence the hydrologic cycle. We present observational evidence to quantify the extent of coupling between vegetation and the overlying atmosphere. Within the context of vegetation–atmospheric interactions, we reanalyze existing climatological data from springtime leaf emergence, emissivity, dew point temperatures, and historical records of precipitation and forest coverage. We construct new rainfall transects based on a robust global climatology. Using isotopic analysis of precipitation, we find that rain in Amazonia comes primarily from large-scale weather systems coupling interior regions to the ocean and is not directly driven by local evaporation. We find that changes in vegetative cover and state influence the temperature and moisture content of the surface and atmospheric boundary layer but are not reflected in observable precipitation changes. This analysis reaffirms the view that changes in precipitation over continental reaches are a product of complex processes only partly influenced but not controlled by local water sources or vegetation.     

Determination of atmospheric precipitable water and humidity profiles by a ground-based 1,35 cm radiometer

In four seasons of 1982 measurements of atmospheric water vapor profiles and total precipitable water were made by a ground-based microwave radiometer operating at 1.35 cm wavelength. All data were processed by using Monte Carlo method. The statistical results of more than seventy cases show that the relative error compared to the radiosonde observations is 5.3% for the total precipitable water vapor and less than 20% for humidity profiles in the lower atmosphere below 750 mb. In addition, the relationship between the weather background and both the humidity profiles and the total precipitable water vapor were analyzed.     

松嫩平原西部局地暴雨天气成因分析

利用常规气象观测、卫星、雷达和NCEP1°×1°再分析等资料,分析2013年6月27~28日齐齐哈尔市稳定性中雨和龙江县对流性暴雨天气成因,结果表明：龙江短时强降雨出现在850hPa切变线同500hPa槽线或850hPa干线位置近于重合时,层结不稳定,上升运动强;齐齐哈尔降雨发生在低层切变线附近,层结趋于稳定,上升运动弱。地形迎风坡作用有利于龙江降雨强于齐齐哈尔。 单站风、相对湿度和垂直速度时空变化差异以及对流有效位能、大气可降水量和SI指数等物理量可以反映两地上升运动、水汽、层结不稳定条件差异。较好的水汽和大气层结不稳定条件只是对流性短时强降水的必要条件。中尺度对流云团和小尺度对流云回波产生龙江短时强降雨,齐齐哈尔稳定性较大降雨由层状云产生。     

北京冬季城市人为水汽排放的定量估算研究

在北京城市气象环境的数值模拟中,人为热的设置是一个难点。人为热包括感热和潜热,人为潜热可以通过计算人为水汽排放获得。本文利用飞机观测资料对北京冬季人为水汽排放进行了定量估算。研究发现,在北京城区下风方向观测到相对周边区域更高的水汽摩尔分数,当观测到城市水汽过量信号时,水汽排放率的估计值在58～9539 kg/s,占城市大气边界层水汽总平流（背景+城市过量）的0.64%到13.12%。城市过量水汽排放的主要来源是天然气燃烧、水冷空调系统、城市交通等人为水汽的排放,中心城区和周边区域融雪率和蒸发率的差异可能也会有一定的贡献,但所占比例较小。     

GNSS/PWV与风云四号A星GIIRS水汽廓线融合应用研究

中国新一代地球静止气象卫星风云四号A星（FY-4A）搭载的干涉式大气垂直探测仪（Geostationary Interferometric Infrared Sounder, GIIRS）以红外高光谱干涉分光方式探测三维大气温湿结构,取得了在静止轨道上探测大气的突破性进展。地基全球导航卫星系统（Global Navigation Satellite System,GNSS）是一种连续监测大气可降水量（Precipitable Water Vapor,PWV）的有效手段,基于2018年6—8月中国地基GNSS站监测的PWV和FY-4A/GIIRS水汽廓线的业务产品以及常规无线电探空资料,开展GNSS/PWV与FY-4A/GIIRS水汽廓线快速融合应用,以提高卫星资料反演大气水汽廓线的精度。结果表明:与常规无线电探空相比,FY-4A/GIIRS水汽廓线产品在大气低层均方根误差（Root Mean Square Error,RMSE）为4.5 g/kg,700 hPa为2.4 g/kg,500 hPa以上因水汽含量较低RSME小于1.5 g/kg。GNSS/PWV与FY-4A/GIIRS水汽廓线融合后,FY-4A/GIIRS水汽廓线误差整层RMSE减小20%,从近地层到600 hPa RMSE平均减小20%—25%,尤其是850—700 hPa改善最明显,极大改善了卫星水汽反演资料的可用性。对一次多系统影响的暴雨天气过程应用分析表明,GNSS/PWV和FY-4A/GIIRS融合产品可获得高时、空密度的大气水汽廓线,对强降水的临近预报有非常重要的支撑作用。      

湿空气动热力学理论及应用研究进展

回顾了湿空气热动力学的研究进展,对未饱和湿大气、饱和湿大气及非均匀饱和湿大气的动热力方程、能量方程、连续方程等进行了梳理,指出饱和湿空气动量方程与非均匀饱和湿空气动量方程的最大区别在于对凝结过程的处理不同。饱和湿大气中,由于大气均是饱和的,由饱和造成的水凝物可处处出现,不能区分真正发生水汽凝结的区域。而非均匀饱和湿空气中,凝结发生与相对湿度的幂次方有关(即与凝结概率函数的分布有关),在相对湿度较小的区域不会出现水汽凝结,凝结区与非凝结区可自动区别,其描述的凝结过程与实际大气更接近。同时,总结了湿大气水汽凝结饱和非均匀分布的动热力物理量在高影响天气分析中的应用,最后讨论了未来推进湿空气动力学研究需重点考虑的一个内容。     

Atmospheric Response to Mesoscale Ocean Eddies over the South China Sea

The South China Sea(SCS) is an eddy-active area. Composite analyses based on 438 mesoscale ocean eddies during 2000–2012 revealed the status of the atmospheric boundary layer is influenced remarkably by such eddies. The results showed cold-core cyclonic(warm-core anticyclonic) eddies tend to cool(warm) the overlying atmosphere and cause surface winds to decelerate(accelerate). More than 5% of the total variance of turbulent heat fluxes, surface wind speed and evaporation rate are induced by mesoscale eddies. Furthermore, mesoscale eddies locally affect the columnar water vapor, cloud liquid water, and rain rate. Dynamical analyses indicated that both variations of atmospheric boundary layer stability and sea level pressure are responsible for atmospheric anomalies over mesoscale eddies. To reveal further details about the mechanisms of atmospheric responses to mesoscale eddies, atmospheric manifestations over a pair of cold and warm eddies in the southwestern SCS were simulated. Eddy-induced heat flux anomalies lead to changes in atmospheric stability. Thus, anomalous turbulence kinetic energy and friction velocity arise over the eddy dipole, which reduce(enhance) the vertical momentum transport over the cold(warm) eddy, resulting in the decrease(increase) of sea surface wind. Diagnoses of the model's momentum balance suggested that wind speed anomalies directly over the eddy dipole are dominated by vertical mixing terms within the atmospheric boundary layer, while wind anomalies on the edges of eddies are produced by atmospheric pressure gradient forces and atmospheric horizontal advection terms.     

Spatiotemporal distributions of δD in atmospheric water vapor based on TES Data during 2004–2009

The spatial and temporal distributions of the stable isotopes such as HD¹⁶O (or ¹H²H¹⁶O, or HDO) and H₂ ¹⁸O in atmospheric water vapor are related to evaporation in source places, vapor condensation during transport, and vapor convergence and divergence, and thus provide useful information for investigation and understanding of the global water cycle. This paper analyzes spatiotemporal variations of the content of isotope HDO (i.e., δ _D), in atmospheric water vapor, namely, δ _{D v}, and the relationship of δ _{D v} with atmospheric humidity and temperature at different levels in the troposphere, using the HDO and H₂O data retrieved from the Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer (TES) at seven pressure levels from 825 to 100 hPa. The results indicate that δ _{D v} has a clear zonal distribution in the troposphere and a good correspondence with atmospheric precipitable water. The results also show that δ _{D v} decreases logarithmically with atmospheric pressure and presents a decreasing trend from the equator to high latitudes and from lands to oceans. Seasonal changes of δ _{D v} exhibit regional differences. The spatial distribution and seasonal variation of δ _{D v} in the low troposphere are consistent with those in the middle troposphere, but opposite situations occur from the upper troposphere to the lower stratosphere. The correlation between δ _{D v} and temperature has a similar distribution pattern to the correlation between δ _{D v} and precipitable water in the troposphere. The stable isotope HDO in water vapor (δ _{D v}), compared with that in precipitation (δ _{D p}), is of some differences in spatial distribution and seasonal variation, and in its relationship with temperature and humidity, indicating that the impacts of stable isotopic fractionation and atmospheric circulation on the two types of stable isotopes are different.     

SENSITIVITY TESTS OF INTERACTION BETWEEN LAND SURFACE PHYSICAL PROCESS AND ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER

In this paper,an interactive model between land surface physical process and atmosphereboundary layer is established,and is used to simulate the features of soil environmental physics,surface heat fluxes,evaporation from soil and evapotranspiration from vegetation and structures ofatmosphere boundary layer over grassland underlying.The sensitivity experiments are engaged inprimary physics parameters.The results show that this model can obtain reasonable simulation fordiurnal variations of heat balance,soil volumetric water content,resistance of vegetationevaporation,flux of surface moisture,and profiles of turbulent exchange coefficient,turbulentmomentum,potential temperature,and specific humidity.The model developed can be used tostudy the interaction between land surface processes and atmospheric boundary layer in cityregions,and can also be used in the simulation of regional climate incorporating a mesoscalemodel.     

SENSITIVITY TESTS OF INTERACTION BETWEEN LAND SURFACE PHYSICAL PROCESS AND ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER*

In this paper,an interactive model between land surface physical process and atmosphere boundary layer is established,and is used to simulate the features of soil environmental physics,surface heat fluxes,evaporation from soil and evapotranspiration from vegetation and structures of atmosphere boundary layer over grassland underlying.The sensitivity experiments are engaged in primary physics parameters.The results show that this model can obtain reasonable simulation for diurnal variations of heat balance,soil volumetric water content,resistance of vegetation evaporation,flux of surface moisture,and profiles of turbulent exchange coefficient,turbulent momentum,potential temperature,and specific humidity.The model developed can be used to study the interaction between land surface processes and atmospheric boundary layer in city regions,and can also be used in the simulation of regional climate incorporating a mesoscale model.