Water infiltration characteristics of unsaturated soil slope and its effect on suction and stability

Rainfall has been considered the cause of the majority of slope failures and landslides that happened in regions experiencing high seasonal rainfalls. The mechanism of the failures was mainly due to the lost of matric suction of soils by rainwater. This paper presents the results of a laboratory model study on the effect of slope angle and surface cover on water infiltration into soil and soil matric suction. A field infiltration test is carried out for comparison. A parametric study is also done to examine the effect of permeability ratio, development of perched water table and rainfall intensity on the factor of safety against instability of a soil slope. Results of the model study show that different surface covers on slopes have an effect on the water infiltration. Generally the covered surface (grass or geosynthetic net) has a lower infiltration rate compared with the bare (no cover) surface. On the effect of slope angle, it was observed that water infiltration decrease with increase in the slope steepness. With regards to the movement of the wetting front, it appears that water infiltration is more at the toe compared with the top of the model slope. Based on the parametric study, it is found factor of safety of the slope against instability drops for slope with higher ratio of permeability for the permeable and impermeable stratum. As the perched water table is formed, the factor of safety decreased. The rainfall intensity also has a marked effect on the slope factor of safety. The higher the intensity of the rainfall, the higher is the infiltration rate into the soil, hence the lower is the factor of safety against slope instability.     

降雨诱发浅层黄土泥流的研究进展、存在问题与对策思考

降雨诱发的浅层黄土泥流规模小、流速快、冲击力强、发育范围广、难以防御、致灾频率高,近两年造成了大量人员伤亡,急需开展其形成机制与强度的研究。黄土物质组成与水敏性、坡体形态对降雨入渗—积水的响应、黄土斜坡对降水入渗的力学响应机制、富水黄土粘滞性流动特性是制约浅层黄土泥流形成的四种主要因素,分析这四种因素的对浅层黄土泥流形成的制约作用需解决斜坡降雨入渗的水文过程、非饱和土的力学效应及水土耦合的机制等前沿问题。本文对影响泥流形成的各因素研究的最新进展进行了综述,同时讨论了研究中的核心问题,并提出了相应的对策与方案,认为可从三方面开展研究:(1)定量描述泥流体积扩容特征,建立浅层黄土泥流启动与流动模式;(2)分析泥流与原状黄土物质成分、组成结构差异,开展黄土非饱和增湿力学变形试验,监测0°~60°单面坡与坡肩平缓斜坡的降雨入渗过程,研究坡体形态对雨水汇聚、入渗及基质吸力变化的控制特征,揭示泥流流体运动过程中水土响应机制;(3)对浅层黄土泥流物理力学模型进行解析,讨论泥流流动能量转化特征,建立降雨诱发泥流灾害的强度计算模型,为降雨泥流灾害危险性定量计算提供理论支撑。     

Analysis of rainfall-induced infinite slope failure during typhoon using a hydrological–geotechnical model

Rainwater infiltration during typhoons tends to trigger slope instability. This paper presents the results of a study on slope response to rainwater infiltration during heavy rainfall in a mountain area of Taiwan. The Green-Ampt infiltration model is adopted here to study the behavior of rainwater infiltration on slopes. The failure mechanism of infinite slope is chosen to represent the rainfall-induced shallow slope failure. By combining rain infiltration model and infinite slope analysis, the proposed model can estimate the occurrence time of a slope failure. In general, if a slope failure is to happen on a slope covered with low permeability soil, failure tends to happen after the occurrence of the maximum rainfall intensity. In contrast, slope failure tends to occur prior to the occurrence of maximum rainfall intensity if a slope is covered with high-permeability soil. To predict the potential and timing of a landslide, a method is proposed here based on the normalized rainfall intensity (NRI) and normalized accumulated rainfall (NAR). If the actual NAR is higher than the NAR calculated by the proposed method, slope failure is very likely to happen. Otherwise, the slope is unlikely to fail. The applicability of the proposed model to occurrence time and the NAR–NRI relationship is evaluated using landslide cases obtained from the literature. The results of the proposed method are close to that of the selected cases. It verifies the applicability of the proposed method to slopes in different areas of the world. An erratum to this article can be found at     

降雨诱发直线型黄土填方边坡失稳模型试验

近年来,随着“治沟造地”和“固沟保塬”等工程在黄土高原的陆续开展,出现了许多直线型黄土填方边坡。降雨是诱发边坡失稳的重要因素,但对降雨诱发直线型黄土填方边坡变形演化特征和破坏模式的研究较少。以直线型黄土填方边坡为研究对象,通过传感器监测、三维激光扫描和人工降雨,开展室内降雨模型试验,记录了降雨入渗下边坡内部水文响应特征和边坡失稳破坏过程,并对湿润锋、土颗粒运移、坡体内部变形响应、裂缝演化特征及破坏模式进行了分析。试验结果表明:随着降雨入渗,湿润锋达到后,体积含水率增加,并在峰值后保持稳定,而基质吸力则减小,到达最低点后保持稳定。冲沟对填方边坡的影响较大,它的发育改变了坡体内含水率特征,同时也是控制边坡整体滑动的边界;边坡变形响应区域主要是以填方边坡前缘堆积区和后缘滑塌区为主;裂缝演化方向由边坡前缘向后缘发展,它的发育为雨水入渗提供优势通道,同时也加剧边坡的变形破坏;降雨形成的水动力驱使坡体中细颗粒从填方边坡后缘向前缘流失,减弱了土体颗粒之间的胶结能力,使其抗剪强度降低,进而使边坡失稳破坏。因此,在降雨入渗下,直线型黄土填方边坡的变形破坏模式为:坡顶冲沟破坏、坡脚软化→局部牵引坍塌、整体失稳→块体分割、流滑破坏。研究结果可为直线型黄土填方边坡的工程建设和滑坡灾害防治提供理论参考。     

水-力耦合及干湿循环效应对浅层残积土斜坡稳定性的影响

降雨入渗过程中,土体吸力降低,体积明显改变。天然浅层土体长期受到季节性气候变化的影响,因此,开展水-力耦合及干湿交替对浅层残积土坡稳定性影响的数值分析,分析浅层土坡孔隙水压力、湿润锋及安全系数的时空演变规律,并对水-力耦合及干湿交替条件下的浅层土坡失稳破坏机制进行探讨显得尤为必要。研究结果表明:随着干湿循环次数的增加,水-力耦合分析下孔隙水压力以及湿润锋的迁移速度增加更快,边坡也更易失稳破坏;干湿交替初期,雨水入渗易引起地下水位上升,边坡可因正孔隙水压力的增加而失稳;干湿交替后期,湿润锋的快速推进加剧基质吸力迅速丧失及土体强度下降,边坡安全系数显著降低,发生失稳破坏的时间缩短。因此,可将湿润锋处的安全系数(局部最小值)作为控制边坡长期稳定性的临界值。     

膨胀土边坡非饱和渗流及渐进性破坏耦合分析

膨胀土边坡受降雨影响产生膨胀变形,是典型的非饱和土多场耦合问题。为探究降雨入渗对其渐进性破坏的失稳过程,基于饱和-非饱和渗流理论、膨胀土弹塑性本构关系和应变软化理论,利用应变软化模型、FLAC3D二次开发平台和内置FISH语言,提出了一种综合考虑非饱和渗流、膨胀变形和应变软化的多场耦合数值分析法。结合工程实例,通过该方法探讨了降雨入渗条件下膨胀土边坡非饱和渗流、位移响应及渐进性破坏的变化规律。结果表明:膨胀变形和应变软化受控于非饱和渗流的时空分布,对边坡位移响应过程影响显著,也易导致饱和-非饱和分界带形成剪应力集中区。膨胀土边坡渐进性破坏由局部破坏转变为整体性失稳,其塑性破坏区首先随悬挂型暂态饱和区的变化向坡内扩展,雨后逐渐形成第二条由坡脚向坡顶扩展的滑动带,呈现出多重滑动性和后退牵引式的破坏特征。     

基于Green-Ampt模型的多层结构边坡降雨入渗改进计算方法及稳定性影响研究

降雨作用下,边坡土体的饱和度及含水率升高,基质吸力减小。随着降雨历时的增长,雨水入渗深度对坡体的稳定性产生影响。然而传统多层结构边坡的入渗计算方法并未考虑随入渗深度不断变化的基质吸力与层间积水点的形成,且忽略饱和层内沿坡体层面流动的部分雨水对入渗过程的影响,亦未考虑潜在滑动面位置随降雨历时的变化。将入渗过程分解为若干个子过程,并基于Green-Ampt（G-A）入渗模型对传统多层结构边坡的入渗计算方法进行改进,以对每个子过程进行求解,最后将其合并为整体入渗过程的解。在此基础上对层间积水点的形成时刻进行计算,进而分析雨水入渗深度与时间的关系,并研究降雨强度与雨水入渗深度对边坡不同位置处（湿润锋、饱和层）稳定系数和滑动面位置的影响。研究表明:（1）基于G-A模型的改进计算方法所得结果比传统多层结构边坡入渗计算方法所得结果更接近于数值模拟结果。（2）对于多层结构土质边坡,其安全系数随着雨水入渗深度的增加不断降低,并且在层间积水点形成时产生突变现象。（3）随着降雨历时和降雨强度的增大,边坡中潜在滑动面位置会产生变化,前期潜在滑动面位置出现在湿润锋处,后期则出现在饱和层交界面处。该方法提高了多层结构边坡传统降雨入渗计算方法的精度,更加全面的对多层结构边坡的稳定性进行评价,其工程应用范围亦得到进一步扩大     

Deterministic estimation of hydrological thresholds for shallow landslide initiation and slope stability models: case study from the Somma-Vesuvius area of southern Italy

Rainfall-induced debris flows involving ash-fall pyroclastic deposits that cover steep mountain slopes surrounding the Somma-Vesuvius volcano are natural events and a source of risk for urban settlements located at footslopes in the area. This paper describes experimental methods and modelling results of shallow landslides that occurred on 5–6 May 1998 in selected areas of the Sarno Mountain Range. Stratigraphical surveys carried out in initiation areas show that ash-fall pyroclastic deposits are discontinuously distributed along slopes, with total thicknesses that vary from a maximum value on slopes inclined less than 30° to near zero thickness on slopes inclined greater than 50°. This distribution of cover thickness influences the stratigraphical setting and leads to downward thinning and the pinching out of pyroclastic horizons. Three engineering geological settings were identified, in which most of the initial landslides that triggered debris flows occurred in May 1998 can be classified as (1) knickpoints, characterised by a downward progressive thinning of the pyroclastic mantle; (2) rocky scarps that abruptly interrupt the pyroclastic mantle; and (3) road cuts in the pyroclastic mantle that occur in a critical range of slope angle. Detailed topographic and stratigraphical surveys coupled with field and laboratory tests were conducted to define geometric, hydraulic and mechanical features of pyroclastic soil horizons in the source areas and to carry out hydrological numerical modelling of hillslopes under different rainfall conditions. The slope stability for three representative cases was calculated considering the real sliding surface of the initial landslides and the pore pressures during the infiltration process. The hydrological modelling of hillslopes demonstrated localised increase of pore pressure, up to saturation, where pyroclastic horizons with higher hydraulic conductivity pinch out and the thickness of pyroclastic mantle reduces or is interrupted. These results lead to the identification of a comprehensive hydrogeomorphological model of susceptibility to initial landslides that links morphological, stratigraphical and hydrological conditions. The calculation of intensities and durations of rainfall necessary for slope instability allowed the identification of deterministic hydrological thresholds that account for uncertainty in properties and observed rainfall intensities.     

Seasonal effects of rainfall on the shallow pyroclastic deposits of the Campania region (southern Italy)

The shallow deposits of unsaturated pyroclastic soils covering the slopes in the Campania region (southern Italy) are systematically affected by various rainfall-induced slope instabilities. The type and triggering of these instabilities depend on several factors, among which in situ soil suction—as an initial condition—and rainfall—as a boundary condition—play a fundamental role. Based on the available database—which includes a comprehensive catalogue of historical data, in situ soil suction measurements and soil laboratory tests along with the results of geomechanical analyses—this paper discusses the relationships among in situ soil suction and rainfall conditions and induced slope instability types. The goal is to reach a better understanding of past events and gain further insight into the analysis and forecasting of future events. In particular, the paper outlines how the season strongly affects the spatial distribution and the type of slope instability likely to develop. For example, erosion phenomena essentially occur at the end of the dry season and originate hyperconcentrated flows while first-time shallow slides prevail in the rainy season and later propagate as debris flows or as debris avalanches.     

滑坡对降雨的动态响应及其监测预警研究

以福建德化县彭坑滑坡为例,基于非饱和土力学理论,结合滑坡实际监测数据,利用有限元法对坡体在雨水入渗条件下的渗流、变形特性和稳定性进行计算和分析,研究滑坡对降雨的动态响应和不同工况下安全系数和位移的关系。结果表明:滑体结构松散,易于雨水入渗,改变基质吸力空间分布,弱化岩土体参数; 持续降雨会使地下水位上升,坡脚发生变形,牵引坡体后缘产生拉裂,直至在降雨期间产生以非饱和区域为主的滑坡。强降雨初期,边坡安全系数下降较快,易发生滑坡; 雨停后安全系数会因雨水持续下渗而进一步降低,应注意雨后滑坡的产生; 同样水分在不同坡体部位对稳定性影响不同,安全系数有消有涨,存在时空效应。最后为反映地下水位线和降雨条件变化对边坡产生危害的程度,提出危险系数概念,建立危险系数与增量位移的关系,实现边坡测点位移变化的阶段式预警。研究结果和方法可为类似工程的治理和监测预警提供有意义的参考。     

降雨对均质各向异性土质边坡稳定性的影响

采用有限元法分析了非饱和均质各向异性土坡中的降雨渗透过程和土水相互作用的变化过程,使用修改的Mohr-Coulomb破坏准则考虑非饱和土的抗剪强度,根据基质吸力变化引起抗破坏强度变化的原理,寻找最危险的滑移面位置,计算最小稳定安全系数,研究了土坡遭受降雨渗透时的安全稳定问题。实例分析结果表明,该法在评判降雨时非饱和土坡的稳定性方面是合理可行的。同时分析数据表明裂隙的存在对土质边坡稳定性的影响是显著的,在对雨水入渗的土边坡稳定性分析时,必须考虑裂隙的影响。     

Rainfall-induced landslides by deficit field matric suction in unsaturated soil slopes

Landslides are mainly triggered by decrease in the matric suction with deepening the wetting band by rainfall infiltrations. This paper reports rainfall-induced landslides in partially saturated soil slopes through a field study. A comprehensive analysis on Umyeonsan (Mt.) landslides in 2011 was highlighted. The incident involves the collapse of unsaturated soil slopes under extreme-rainfall event. Fundamental studies on the mechanism and the cause of landslides were carried out. A number of technical findings are of interest, including the failure mechanism of a depth of soil and effect of groundwater flow, the downward movement of wetting band and the increase of groundwater level. Based on this, an integrated analysis methodology for a rainfall-induced landslide is proposed in this paper that incorporates the field matric suction for obtaining hydraulic parameters of unsaturated soil. The field matric suction is shown to govern the rate of change in the water infiltration for the landslide analysis with respect to an antecedent rainfall. Special attention was given to a one-dimensional infiltration model to determine the wetting band depth in the absence of the field matric suction. The results indicate that landslide activities were primarily dependent on rainfall infiltration, soil properties, slope geometries, vegetation, and groundwater table positions. The proposed methodology has clearly demonstrated both shallow and deep-seated landslides and shows good agreement with the results of landslide investigations.     

不同渗流边界条件下粉砂边坡失稳模型试验研究

研究不同渗流边界条件下粉砂边坡的稳定特性对滑坡安全评价及防灾减灾具有重要意义。开发研制了室内边坡模型试验系统,分别进行了在上部边界入渗、侧向边界入渗和底部边界入渗的边坡失稳模型试验。分析了各试验中边坡内部不同位置体积含水率、孔隙水压力和基质吸力的变化规律以及坡体破坏过程。结果表明,不同入渗边界条件下边坡土体局部由非饱和变为饱和状态,基质吸力消失,最后在坡面形成不稳定区域塌落破坏。上部边界入渗、侧向边界入渗和底部边界入渗所引起的破坏模式根据其特点可分为局部浅层破坏、多级后退式破坏和坡面滑动破坏。通过监测边坡不同位置的体积含水率,可以为渗流引发的边坡失稳预警机制提供参考依据。     

降雨过程中边坡临界滑动场

降雨入渗过程中孔隙水压力的升高与基质吸力的降低引起边坡稳定性的下降,是导致边坡滑塌的主要诱导因素。利用饱和-非饱和渗流有限元计算得到的孔隙水压力场,基于Fredlund提出的非饱和土抗剪强度理论,对边坡临界滑动场进行改进,提出可以考虑降雨过程的边坡临界滑动场数值模拟方法,能够方便、快速地计算出边坡局部、整体安全系数和相对应的临界滑动面在降雨过程中的变化历程。将该法用于一个典型均质边坡和一个非均质边坡在降雨过程中的稳定性计算,分析降雨持续时间、降雨强度和非饱和强度参数取值等因素对边坡稳定性的影响,并将计算结果与其他方法进行比较,结果表明临界滑动场方法能搜索任意形状最危险滑面,计算的安全系数合理。     

连续降雨作用下非饱和土边坡的稳定性分析

在边坡稳定性研究中,吸力的影响经常被忽略。基于非饱和土的渗流理论,利用数值分析方法研究了一个由于连续降雨导致的非饱和土边坡失稳的工程实例。研究结果表明:非饱和土的吸力对于维持边坡稳定具有重要影响,而吸力与降雨频率、降雨量、降雨时间、蒸发量等密切相关。对于工程实践而言,吸力的监测对于维持土坡稳定具有重要意义。     

台风暴雨型浅层滑坡失稳机理研究

针对台风暴雨耦合作用下浅层滑坡的失稳机理进行研究。在总结福建台风暴雨型滑坡灾害特征的基础上,提出风荷载对斜坡变形失稳的影响机理是通过植被造成坡体开裂,从而影响坡体的入渗规律。应用GeoStudio软件计算台风暴雨入渗条件下裂隙坡体中暂态非饱和渗流场的变化,以及对斜坡稳定性的影响。计算结果表明:裂隙坡体由于在裂隙处形成集中入渗点,雨水的入渗速度大于无裂隙的坡体,坡体达到饱和状态所需要的时间大为缩短。裂隙深度、间距对滑坡稳定系数的影响较大,裂隙深度越大、间距越小,在相同的降雨条件下滑坡的稳定系数越小,滑坡失稳需要的降雨时长越短。裂隙宽度对滑坡稳定性的影响相对较小。      

降雨入渗影响下边坡中的非饱和渗流特性

为了分析降雨入渗影响下非饱和土坡渗流特性,利用自制降雨模拟系统和实时监测系统,对降雨诱发非饱和土坡失稳过程进行全方位、多参量的实时监测,研究不同降雨条件下,不同坡度、不同压实度边坡坡体不同位置雨水入渗率和湿润峰的实变规律.结果表明:降雨入渗条件下,陡坡和高压实度土体不利于雨水入渗,而缓坡和低密实度土体入渗率变化快;实际土体吸力和含水量实时变化规律不同步,提出试验湿润峰概念,含水率（吸力）湿润峰点可按含水率（吸力）实时曲线的过渡区和雨后残余含水率（吸力）的线性交叉点确定;考虑单向吸湿或脱湿路径下土体含水率和吸力具有唯一对应关系,含水率湿润峰点与吸力湿润峰点的绝对值时差即为形成湿润峰所需时间;对比湿润峰实测值与Lumb半经验值散点分布规律,基于Lumb湿润峰深度计算公式提出非线性修正表达式.      

Partial Saturation and Seismicity on Steep Reclaimed Slopes

While traditional mine reclamation methods emphasize compaction to increase the strength of the materials and ensure stability of the restored slope, high compaction restricts the successful reforestation of reclaimed mine sites. The Forest Reclamation Approach (FRA), which uses low compaction in the uppermost 1.2–1.5 m of the surface has been shown to facilitate the establishment of healthy native forests. Stability analyses of three steep FRA slopes from the southern Appalachian region have shown that the long-term static stability is not compromised, and that the infinite slope method provides a rational method to evaluate the stability of steep FRA slopes. In this article, modifications of the infinite slope equation are utilized to (a) include the effects of matric suction due to unsaturated soil conditions and (b) evaluate the seismic performance of FRA slopes based on spectral accelerations. Monthly variation of the water content at three research sites demonstrated the seasonal stability variation of FRA slopes due to matric suction, while seismic analyses illustrated the conditions under which instability may occur.     

3D stability of unsaturated soil slopes with tension cracks under steady infiltrations

Most classical approaches for evaluating the stability of soil slopes with cracks are performed under two-dimensional (2D) condition. Three-dimensional (3D) effect and suction-induced effect of unsaturated soils are generally neglected in assessing the slope stability. This paper develops a 3D limit analysis method to evaluate the stability of an unsaturated soil slope with tension cracks under steady infiltrations. The boundary-value problem is formulated based on the 3D rotational failure mechanism by taking the effects of suction, effective unit weight, and tension crack into account. A simplified method is proposed to calculate the work rate of unsaturated soil weight. A layer-wise summation method is developed based on the divergence theorem to calculate the internal energy dissipation rate. Detailed discussions are conducted to investigate the effects of suction and Poisson's ratio on the stability of unsaturated soil slopes. Examples are given to illustrate the 3D effect, the suction-induced effect as well as the effects of infiltration and water in cracks on the slope stability.     

Failure mechanism of a slope with a thin soft band triggered by intensive rainfall

Rainfall is considered as one of the paramount factors for slope failures in many regions around the world, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. To study the effect of rainfall storm and its duration on the stability of slopes with a thin soft band layer, a 2D seepage numerical analysis and experimental investigation were implemented on an unsaturated model, consisting of clayey sand soils with a thin soft layer inclined to the horizontal level by 30° at a slope angle of 50°. It was subjected to intensive rainfall 20 mm/h for 8 h. Positive pore water pressures and horizontal earth pressures were monitored during the rainstorm using sensors distributed inside the experimental model. Both the experimental and numerical simulation results showed that the stability of the slope decreased during the time of the rainfall storm. Infiltration of rainwater resulted in reduction of soil shear strength, due to the loss occurring in soil suction after 1 h of rainstorm; the tension cracks appeared at the top of the slope and a certain displacement was observed in the sliding blocks. During the time of rainstorm, the infiltrated water flowed out from the slope through the weak interlayer near to the toe causing piping and local failure, so the formed cracks at the top of slope grew and expanded due to sliding of the failed soil blocks. Moreover, the ground water table rose and the positive pore water pressures increased, resulting in a reduction of effective stress, which is considered as a main factor in soil shear strength. A surface runoff was also present following the full saturation of the slope, leading to dragging the fine particles with water flow causing erosion. The combination of piping and erosion effects led to a quick local failure at the toe, as well as sliding of the failed blocks and spreading of the cracks.