The importance of marine spatial planning in advancing ecosystem-based sea use management

During the past 10 years, the evolution of marine spatial planning (MSP) and ocean zoning has become a crucial step in making ecosystem-based, sea use management a reality. The idea was initially stimulated by international and national interest in developing marine protected areas, e.g., the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. More recent attention has been placed on managing the multiple use of marine space, especially in areas where conflicts among users and the environment are already clear, e.g., in the North Sea. Even more recent concern has focused on the need to conserve nature, especially ecologically and biologically sensitive areas, in the context of multi-use planning of ocean space. Despite academic discussions and the fact that some countries already have started implementation, the scope of MSP has not been clearly defined. Terms such as integrated management, marine spatial management, and ocean zoning are all used inconsistently. This is one of the reasons why its importance is not more seriously reflected at the levels of policy and decision-making in most countries. This article attempts to deal with this problem. It describes why MSP is an essential step to achieve ecosystem-based sea use management, how it can be defined and what its core objectives are. The article concludes with an analysis of the use and achievements of MSP worldwide, with particular focus on new approaches in Europe.     

Zoning strategies for marine protected areas in Taiwan: Case study of Gueishan Island in Yilan County,Taiwan

According to the United Nations (UN) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, there has been a dramatic decline in global biodiversity. The UN has made a global appeal for all countries to mitigate their impact on the environment. Marine environmental protection is one of the most critical and urgent issues in the world and many countries have commenced establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) by implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) concepts. MPA planning has been considered one of the simplest and most effective methods to protect marine environments. Taiwan has recently developed policies that have focused on its marine environment, and there are plans to increase the size of Taiwan׳s MPAs to 20% of its total ocean territory by 2020, thereby achieving a sustainable ocean. To achieve this goal, the government must address specific difficulties associated with the location of MPAs and relevant zoning strategies. This study establishes MPA protection principles and a zoning framework for MPAs in Taiwan by using Gueishan Island in Yilan County as a case study site to examine specific zoning strategies. The protection of 3 objectives (hydrothermal vents, cetacean, and fisheries resources) is discussed in this paper. Multi-criteria spatial analysis and a geographic information system are applied to identify the most crucial area to protect. To understand the stakeholders׳ opinions and concerns regarding the proposed zoning framework, this research conducted in-depth interviews with experts and stakeholders. MPAs zoning strategies are formulated at the conclusion of this study that could assist in protecting critical marine resources and avoiding conflicts among various usages of the marine area.     

Exploring stakeholder perceptions of marine management in Bermuda

Given competing objectives vying for space in the marine environment, the island of Bermuda may be an ideal candidate for comprehensive marine spatial planning (MSP). However, faced with other pressing issues, ocean management reform has not yet received significant traction from the government, a pattern seen in many locations. Spatial planning processes often struggle during the proposal, planning, or implementation phases due to stakeholder opposition and/or government wariness to change. Conflict among stakeholders about management reform has also proven to be a deterrent to MSP application in many locations. With these obstacles in mind, a detailed stakeholder survey was conducted in Bermuda to determine awareness, attitudes and perceptions regarding ocean health, threats to ocean environments, the effectiveness of current ocean management, and possible future changes to management. How perceptions vary for different types of stakeholders and how attitudes about specific concerns relate to attitudes about management changes were examined. Overall, the results indicate a high degree of support for spatial planning and ocean zoning and a high level of concordance even among stakeholder groups that are typically assumed to have conflicting agendas. However, attitudes were not entirely homogeneous, particularly when delving into details about specific management changes. For example, commercial fishers were generally less in favor, relative to other stakeholder groups, of increasing regulations on ocean uses with the notable exception of regulations for recreational fishing. Given the results of this survey, public support is likely to be high for government action focused on ocean management reform in Bermuda.     

Improving fisheries co-management through ecosystem-based spatial management: The Galapagos Marine Reserve

Ecosystem-based spatial management (EBSM) can provide a mechanism for a strategic and integrated plan-based approach to managing human activities in the marine environment. An EBSM approach was adopted in the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) at the end of the 1990s with the adoption of marine zoning. The latter was created under a co-management regime to reduce conflicts among users arising over incompatible demands for ocean space, to mitigate the impact of human activities on sensitive ecological areas, and to contribute to the sustainability of Galapagos fisheries. Unfortunately, the promise of an EBSM approach in the GMR has not been matched by effectiveness in practice, in achieving the established management objectives. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the shortcomings and lessons learned related to planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and adaptation of the GMR's marine zoning scheme, and to provide recommendations to better realize the potential value of the EBSM approach to co-managing the shellfisheries of the GMR.     

基于ArcGIS的江苏省连云区海洋空间规划分区研究

文章以江苏省连云港市连云区海域为研究区,提出了兼顾海洋资源开发与生态环境保护的海洋空间规划分区体系,包括工业与城镇建设区、生物资源利用区和生态保护区3个类别;构建了海洋环境生态承载力评价和海洋开发利用适宜性评价指标体系,基于ArcGIS完成了规划区网格划分和相关评价,并据此进行叠置分析,完成连云区海域分区的空间划分,其中工业与城镇建设区总面积占比为23.58%、生物资源利用区占55.52%、生态保护区占20.90%。海洋空间规划分区体系和基于ArcGIS划分方法在连云区的应用实践表明,该方法体系能够较好地协调海洋保护与开发的空间格局划分,可以为我国海洋空间规划分区研究和实践提供借鉴。     

国土空间规划编制中的海洋功能区划实施评价及思考

对现行海洋功能区划的实施情况进行评价,是编制国土空间规划的重要基础。文章构建了省级海洋功能区划实施评价的基本框架,明确了评价原则、思路、流程与方法,以期为新一轮国土空间规划编制提供依据与参考。针对区划实施中存在的问题及新时期面临的形势,提出了突出重点、因地制宜,全面调查、摸清家底,完善分区、探索分类,严格兼容、加强管控,定期评价、动态调整等对策建议。     

Mind the gap: Addressing the shortcomings of marine protected areas through large scale marine spatial planning

A blind faith in the ability of MPAs to counteract loss of biodiversity is fraught with risk, especially when MPAs are poorly planned and when the consequences of establishing MPAs are not adequately thought out. MPA shortcomings are categorized as one of five main types: (1) MPAs that by virtue of their small size or poor design are ecologically insufficient; (2) inappropriately planned or managed MPAs; (3) MPAs that fail due to the degradation of the unprotected surrounding ecosystems; (4) MPAs that do more harm than good due to displacement and unintended consequences of management; and (5) MPAs that create a dangerous illusion of protection when in fact no protection is occurring. A strategic alternative, which fully utilizes the strengths of the MPA tool while avoiding the pitfalls, can overcome these shortcomings: integrating marine protected area planning in broader marine spatial planning and ocean zoning efforts.     

Zoning design for cross-border marine protected areas: The Red Sea Marine Peace Park case study

In marine protected areas (MPAs), zoning schemes can help balance multiple resource uses. Literature on ocean zoning design methods points out the need for analytical tools that guarantee stakeholder involvement and that address the unique spatial characteristics of the sea, especially under multiple jurisdictions. I illustrate the use of a method of spatial multi-criteria analysis (MCA) that combines data of the land and ocean environment with stakeholder preferences to identify areas most suitable for varying levels of protective zoning. To solicit preferences, I apply social science survey techniques at an early stage in the process. I synthesize the resulting preferences with physical data using a geographical information system. This comprehensive approach addresses some of the challenges of designing zoning for a cross-border, multi-jurisdictional MPA such as varying levels of information between countries, limited cooperation between managers and scientists, differing statutory regimes, and difficulties bringing stakeholders together to solicit their opinions. As a case study, I developed a zoning proposal for the Red Sea Marine Peace Park (RSMPP), a proposed MPA to be jointly managed by Jordan and Israel in the northern Gulf of Aqaba.     

"多规合一"视角下海洋功能区划与 土地利用总体规划的比较分析

文章基于"多规合一"的视角,从概念内涵、规划体系、区别联系等方面,对比分析了海洋功能区划与土地利用总体规划的差异性和关联性。重点分析两者在功能定位、时间定位、层级体系、分类体系、评价制度等方面的差异,研究海洋功能区划需完善之处,并提出完善海洋功能区划期限及目标的设置、明确不同层级的细化标准和要求、增加海洋保护、生态环境整治修复类等功能区类型、加强海洋功能区划实施情况评估制度的建设等对策和建议,为实现海洋功能区划在"多规合一"进程中与土地利用规划等其他规划统筹衔接提供研究基础。     

The international legal framework for marine spatial planning

Increasing demand for ocean resources, both living and non-living, have already lead to loss of biodiversity, habitat depletion and irreversible damage to the marine environment. Furthermore, introduction of new kinds of sea uses, spatial extension of ongoing sea uses and the need to better protect and conserve the marine biological diversity will result in increasing conflicts among the various users, as well as between the users and the environment. Marine spatial planning as a process to allocate space for specific uses can help to avoid user conflicts, to improve the management of marine spatial claims, and to sustain an ecosystem-based management of ocean and seas. This article explores the rights and duties towards exploitation and protection of the marine environment under the jurisdiction of coastal states as reflected in two important global conventions, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Both Conventions provide the main legal framework for marine spatial planning that have to be taken into account in planning at the regional and national level.     

海洋功能区划实施评估方法研究——以《温州市海洋功能区划(2013—2020年)》及2018年修订版为例

海洋功能区划实施评估是监督海洋功能区划实施成效,提升海洋管理水平的重要工具。基于一致性理念,以规划蓝图为依据,从海域用途符合性、环境质量标准符合性、开发利用影响三方面集成构建海域利用现状和海洋功能区划的协调性判别方法即海洋功能区划协调性指数,并以温州市为实例进行验证。研究表明：基于一致性理念与海洋功能区划蓝图构建的评估方法可以有效测度海洋功能区划实施成效。海洋功能区划修订具有显著适应性,能够高效契合区域海洋经济与海洋生态文明建设需求。该方法对未来国土空间规划海洋部分的有效实施和修订具有重要参考价值。     

基于网络GIS的海洋功能区划管理信息系统

在分析海洋功能区划信息特征的基础上,结合网络GIS集成技术,提出了海洋功能区划管理信息系统的三层结构框架和系统研制的关键性技术,并应用实例详细说明了系统的实用功能。     

New metrics for managing and sustaining the ocean's bounty

Policies are arising around the world, most recently in the United States, that mandate the implementation of marine spatial planning as a practical pathway towards ecosystem-based management. In the new United States ocean policy, and several other cases around the globe, ecosystem services are at the core of marine spatial planning, but there is little guidance on how ecosystem services should be measured, making it hard to implement this new approach. A new framework is shown here for practical, rigorous ecosystem service measurement that highlights contributions from both natural and social systems. The novel three-step framework addresses traditional shortcomings of an ecosystem services approach by giving managers and scientists the tools to assess and track: (1) the condition of the ecosystem (supply metrics), (2) the amount of ocean resources actually used or enjoyed by people (service metrics), and (3) people's preference for that level of service (value metrics). This framework will allow real world progress on marine spatial planning to happen quickly, and with a greater chance for success.     

市级与省级海洋功能区划空间符合性分析研究

中国海洋功能区划分为国家、省、市、县四级,尽管体系的层次分明,特点描述也清楚,但由于层级之间缺少明确的约束关系和控制手段,导致海洋功能区划编制及海域管理实践中对各层级间,特别是市级与省级海洋功能区划之间的空间符合关系难于把握。基于此,研究归纳了海洋功能区空间关系及其主导功能相互关系,构建了市级与省级海洋功能区划空间符合性分析的定量化评价模型,并以漳州市与福建省海洋保护区符合性分析为例,检验了分析模型的适用性以及分析结果与实际情况的一致性,为海洋功能区划修编工作提供了一种分析方法。     

海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系构建及其在泉州湾的应用

基于海岸带综合管理的理念,通过海域生态环境敏感性评价与海域生物多样性保护重要性评价,综合利用地理相关分析法、空间叠置法等定性和定量分区相结合的方法进行海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区划界,提出了海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系,将规划区域划分为生物多样性重点保护区、生物多样性养护区和生物多样性保护重点监督区.以福建泉州湾为案例,应用海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系,得出泉州湾生物多样性保护极重要地区是泉州湾河口湿地省级自然保护区,泉州湾生物多样性保护比较重要地区是晋江河口、洛阳江河口、晋江南岸地区及清源山.泉州湾海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区方案共划定26个分区,包括生物多样性重点保护区3个,生物多样性养护区14个,生物多样性保护重点监督区9个.泉州湾的应用结果表明,本研究提出的海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系具有一定的可行性和可操作性,可为泉州湾生物多样性保护管理提供重要科学依据.     

海洋功能区划与海洋生态红线关系探讨

海洋生态红线制度是我国"五位一体"文明建设的具体要求。为进一步在自然科学与人文科学的联结点上探求深入开展生态红线工作的可能性,文章对比了实施多年的海洋功能区划与历史新阶段提出的海洋生态保护红线的概念和内涵,剖析了两者之间的区别与联系,指出海洋功能区划与海洋生态红线区划在法律地位和管控制度等方面具有一致性,在划分目标、空间管理及划分方法上具有差异性,海洋功能区划以"使用"为主,海洋生态红线以"保护"引领。在此基础上,建议未来海洋生态红线工作的开展可从海洋功能区划借鉴经验,建立完善的管控评估制度,确立生态保护红线的优先地位,处理好海洋功能区划与海洋生态红线区划的关系。同时,海洋生态红线区划应以维持海洋生态系统结构稳定和提高海洋生态系统服务功能为目标,将区域资源环境承载力评估作为一项参考指标,限制低承载区的开发利用,保证海洋生态环境健康可持续发展。     

浙江省海洋公益服务的重大事件

浙江省海洋开发历史悠久 ,长期以来为支持和保障开发利用海洋和海岸带资源 ,浙江省在海洋公益服务方面做了许多工作。例如海塘建设 ,海岸带、海涂、海岛资源调查 ,海洋功能区划 ,海洋渔业调查与区划 ,海洋能资源区划 ,海洋环境和灾害预报 ,海洋地质矿产勘探 ,海洋测量 ,海洋遥感等。这些重大历史事件表明 ,合理利用海洋、海岸带资源 ,保护海洋生态环境 ,实现可持续发展 ,是推动浙江省海洋经济发展的重要环节。     

Ecosystem-based marine spatial management: Review of concepts, policies, tools, and critical issues

Conventional sectoral management and piecemeal governance are considered less and less appropriate in pursuit of sustainable development. Ecosystem based marine spatial management (EB-MSM) is an approach that recognizes the full array of interactions within an ecosystem, including human uses, rather than considering single issues, species, or ecosystem services in isolation. Marine spatial planning and ocean zoning are emerging concepts that can support EB-MSM. EB-MSM is driven by high-level goals that managers aim to achieve through the implementation of measures. High-level goals and objectives need to be translated into more operational objectives before specific targets, limits and measures can be elaborated.Monitoring, evaluation and adaptation are necessary to ensure that marine management measures are both effective and efficient. Solid monitoring frameworks are the foundation of adaptive management, as they provide the necessary information to evaluate performance and the effectiveness of management actions. Marine protected areas (MPAs) - possibly set up in networks - constitute a key component in EB-MSM policies and practises and have been applied as a cornerstone in conservation of marine biodiversity, management of fish populations, development of coastal tourism, etc. Moreover, MPA experiences have provided methods and concepts (such as zoning) to a wider EB-MSM context. The assignment of values to biophysical features of the marine environment allows the direct assessment of related management choices and may assist EB-MSM.A range of monetary valuation techniques have been proposed to reduce attributes of goods and services to a single metric. However, in the marine environment such an approach is often over simplistic, and thus less reductive techniques may be necessary. Rather than producing a single metric, the results of non-monetary assessments guide policy allowing weight to be given as necessary to potential areas of conflict and consensus.Strategies to take into account climate change effects and geohazard risks in EB-MSM have been applied or proposed worldwide. EB-MSM regimes must be alert to such risks and flexible to account for changes.     

Guiding ecological principles for marine spatial planning

The declining health of marine ecosystems around the world is evidence that current piecemeal governance is inadequate to successfully support healthy coastal and ocean ecosystems and sustain human uses of the ocean. One proposed solution to this problem is ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (MSP), which is a process that informs the spatial distribution of activities in the ocean so that existing and emerging uses can be maintained, use conflicts reduced, and ecosystem health and services protected and sustained for future generations. Because a key goal of ecosystem-based MSP is to maintain the delivery of ecosystem services that humans want and need, it must be based on ecological principles that articulate the scientifically recognized attributes of healthy, functioning ecosystems. These principles should be incorporated into a decision-making framework with clearly defined targets for these ecological attributes. This paper identifies ecological principles for MSP based on a synthesis of previously suggested and/or operationalized principles, along with recommendations generated by a group of twenty ecologists and marine scientists with diverse backgrounds and perspectives on MSP. The proposed four main ecological principles to guide MSP—maintaining or restoring: native species diversity, habitat diversity and heterogeneity, key species, and connectivity—and two additional guidelines, the need to account for context and uncertainty, must be explicitly taken into account in the planning process. When applied in concert with social, economic, and governance principles, these ecological principles can inform the designation and siting of ocean uses and the management of activities in the ocean to maintain or restore healthy ecosystems, allow delivery of marine ecosystem services, and ensure sustainable economic and social benefits.