How sustainable is sustainable marine spatial planning? Part I—Linking the concepts

Marine spatial planning (MSP) has emerged worldwide as a tool for sustainable ocean governance. This paper reviews how sustainability and ecosystem-based management (EBM) have been included so far within the MSP general framework, by carrying out: (1) a review on the links between sustainability, EBM and MSP in EU maritime policy initiatives; (2) an analysis on the differences between ecosystem-based MSP versus MSP focused on delivering blue growth; and (3) a discussion on how adaptive management may address some of the main challenges found in achieving sustainable ocean management. From the EU Green Paper (2006) to the MSP Directive Proposal (2013), MSP processes based on the principle of EBM have been recognized as a necessary tool to ensure maritime sustainable development. Although ecosystem-based MSP has been recently presented as the best way to ensure both ecosystem conservation and development of human activities, most national and European MSP initiatives seem to follow a MSP approach focused in delivering blue growth. A challenge, therefore, arises: how to adjust policy decisions to properly preserve ecosystems and the services they provide? If truly implemented, an adaptive approach seems to be a way forward in ensuring that spatial planning, management and policy-making in marine spaces can be continuously adjusted, thus allowing for sustainability.     

Evaluating tradeoffs among ecosystem services to inform marine spatial planning

A central challenge for natural resource management is developing rigorous yet practical approaches for balancing the costs and benefits of diverse human uses of ecosystems. Economic theory has a long history of evaluating tradeoffs in returns from different assets to identify optimal investment strategies. There has been recent progress applying this framework to the delivery of ecosystem services in land use planning. However, despite growing national and international interest in marine spatial planning, there is a lack of parallel frameworks in the marine realm. This paper reviews an ecosystem service tradeoff analysis framework and provides a more comprehensive synthesis for how it can be applied to marine spatial planning and marine ecosystem-based management. A tradeoff analysis approach can reveal inferior management options, demonstrate the benefits of comprehensive planning for multiple, interacting services over managing single services, and identify ‘compatible’ services that provide win–win management options.     

A global ocean observing system framework for sustainable development

Sustainable development depends on maintaining ecosystem services which are concentrated in coastal marine and estuarine ecosystems. Analyses of the science needed to manage human uses of ecosystem services have concentrated on terrestrial ecosystems. Our focus is on the provision of multidisciplinary data needed to inform adaptive, ecosystem-based approaches (EBAs) for maintaining coastal ecosystem services based on comparative ecosystem analyses. Key indicators of pressures on coastal ecosystems, ecosystem states and the impacts of changes in states on services are identified for monitoring and analysis at a global coastal network of sentinel sites nested in the ocean-climate observing system. Biodiversity is targeted as the “master” indicator because of its importance to a broad spectrum of services. Ultimately, successful implementation of EBAs will depend on establishing integrated, holistic approaches to ocean governance that oversee the development of integrated, operational ocean observing systems based on the data and information requirements specified by a broad spectrum of stakeholders for sustainable development. Sustained engagement of such a spectrum of stakeholders on a global scale is not feasible. The global coastal network will need to be customized locally and regionally based on priorities established by stakeholders in their respective regions. The E.U. Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the U.S. Recommendations of the Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force are important examples of emerging regional scale approaches. The effectiveness of these policies will depend on the co-evolution of ocean policy and the observing system under the auspices of integrated ocean governance.     

California Current Large Marine Ecosystem: Publicly available dataset of state and federal laws and regulations

Transitioning ocean governance into an ecosystem-based approach requires improved knowledge of ecosystems and existing management systems. While there has been increased effort to compile and synthesize ecological data, relatively little scholarship has been focused on improving and understanding ocean management systems. This paper presents a unique dataset that makes objective analyses of ocean management possible across multiple jurisdictions and sectors in the California Current. Following an explanation of the criteria used to compile relevant statutes and regulations, the paper suggests applications for the dataset including education and policy uses and ecosystem-based management tool development to identify and measure problems of fragmented management.     

Spatial characterisation of the Benguela ecosystem for ecosystem-based management

The three countries of the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME), namely Angola, Namibia and South Africa, have committed to implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) including an ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) in the region, to put in practice the principles of sustainable development in ocean-related matters. There is also recognition of the need for marine spatial planning (MSP) as a process for informing EBM with regard to the allocation and siting of ocean uses so that ecosystem health is ensured and trade-offs between ecosystem services are appropriately dealt with. Marine spatial planning is both an integrated and an area-based process, and this paper produces a spatial characterisation of the BCLME for achieving a common basis for MSP in the region, focusing on the oceanography, biology and fisheries. Recognising spatial variation in physical driving forces, primary and secondary production, trophic structures and species richness, four different subsystems are characterised: (1) north of the Angola–Benguela Front, (2) from the Angola–Benguela Front to Lüderitz, (3) from Lüderitz to Cape Agulhas, and (4) from Cape Agulhas to Port Alfred on the south-east coast of South Africa. Research and monitoring requirements of relevance for MSP and EBM in the region are identified, focusing on understanding variability and change, including with regard to the boundary areas identified for the system. To this end, 14 cross-shelf monitoring transects are proposed (including seven that are already being monitored) to estimate fluxes of biota, energy and materials within and between the subsystems. The usefulness of models for understanding ecosystem variability and changes is recognised and the need for fine-scale resolution of both sampling and modelling for adequate MSP as input to EBM for the often-conflicting interests of conserving biodiversity, and managing fisheries, recreation, offshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation, offshore mining and shipping routes, is emphasised.     

New metrics for managing and sustaining the ocean's bounty

Policies are arising around the world, most recently in the United States, that mandate the implementation of marine spatial planning as a practical pathway towards ecosystem-based management. In the new United States ocean policy, and several other cases around the globe, ecosystem services are at the core of marine spatial planning, but there is little guidance on how ecosystem services should be measured, making it hard to implement this new approach. A new framework is shown here for practical, rigorous ecosystem service measurement that highlights contributions from both natural and social systems. The novel three-step framework addresses traditional shortcomings of an ecosystem services approach by giving managers and scientists the tools to assess and track: (1) the condition of the ecosystem (supply metrics), (2) the amount of ocean resources actually used or enjoyed by people (service metrics), and (3) people's preference for that level of service (value metrics). This framework will allow real world progress on marine spatial planning to happen quickly, and with a greater chance for success.     

Making the ecosystem approach operational—Can regime shifts in ecological- and governance systems facilitate the transition?

Effectively reducing cumulative impacts on marine ecosystems requires co-evolution between science, policy and practice. Here, long-term social–ecological changes in the Baltic Sea are described, illustrating how the process of making the ecosystem approach operational in a large marine ecosystem can be stimulated. The existing multi-level governance institutions are specifically set up for dealing with individual sectors, but do not adequately support an operational application of the ecosystem approach. The review of ecosystem services in relation to regime shifts and resilience of the Baltic Sea sub-basins, and their driving forces, points to a number of challenges. There is however a movement towards a new governance regime. Bottom-up pilot initiatives can lead to a diffusion of innovation within the existing governance framework. Top-down, enabling EU legislation, can help stimulating innovations and re-organizing governance structures at drainage basin level to the Baltic Sea catchment as a whole. Experimentation and innovation at local to the regional levels is critical for a transition to ecosystem-based management. Establishing science-based learning platforms at sub-basin scales could facilitate this process.     

An innovation and agency perspective on the emergence and spread of Marine Spatial Planning

The roles of governance and technological innovation have been widely recognized as important parts of sustainability transitions. However, less attention has been paid to understanding the mechanisms of the emergence and spread of innovative ideas for stewardship of social–ecological systems. This study considers how theories of innovation and agency are able to provide explanatory power regarding the spread and impact of such ideas. This includes how innovations may contribute to resolving the mismatches between the scale of ecological processes and the scale of governance of ecosystems. The emergence and spread of Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is used as an illustrative case study. The study shows that individuals embedded in informal networks have played a key role in driving the emergence of MSP across scales and in constantly re-framing the tool in order to overcome obstacles to adoption and implementation. In a number of cases, MSP has been decoupled from the ecosystem despite being framed as a tool for ecosystem-based management. Finally, this study is important to understand the process of emergence of new integrated tools for ecosystem stewardship at the global level.     

The importance of marine spatial planning in advancing ecosystem-based sea use management

During the past 10 years, the evolution of marine spatial planning (MSP) and ocean zoning has become a crucial step in making ecosystem-based, sea use management a reality. The idea was initially stimulated by international and national interest in developing marine protected areas, e.g., the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. More recent attention has been placed on managing the multiple use of marine space, especially in areas where conflicts among users and the environment are already clear, e.g., in the North Sea. Even more recent concern has focused on the need to conserve nature, especially ecologically and biologically sensitive areas, in the context of multi-use planning of ocean space. Despite academic discussions and the fact that some countries already have started implementation, the scope of MSP has not been clearly defined. Terms such as integrated management, marine spatial management, and ocean zoning are all used inconsistently. This is one of the reasons why its importance is not more seriously reflected at the levels of policy and decision-making in most countries. This article attempts to deal with this problem. It describes why MSP is an essential step to achieve ecosystem-based sea use management, how it can be defined and what its core objectives are. The article concludes with an analysis of the use and achievements of MSP worldwide, with particular focus on new approaches in Europe.     

Essential ecological insights for marine ecosystem-based management and marine spatial planning

The abrupt decline in the sea's capacity to provide crucial ecosystem services requires a new ecosystem-based approach for maintaining and recovering biodiversity and integrity. Ecosystems are places, so marine spatial planners and managers must understand the heterogeneity of biological communities and their key components (especially apex predators and structure-forming species), and of key processes (e.g., population connectivity, interaction webs, biogeochemistry) that maintain them, as well as heterogeneity of human uses. Maintaining resistance and resilience to stressors is crucial. Because marine populations and ecosystems exhibit complex system behaviors, managers cannot safely assume they will recover when stressors are reduced, so prevention is a far more robust management strategy than seeking a cure for degraded systems.     

The international legal framework for marine spatial planning

Increasing demand for ocean resources, both living and non-living, have already lead to loss of biodiversity, habitat depletion and irreversible damage to the marine environment. Furthermore, introduction of new kinds of sea uses, spatial extension of ongoing sea uses and the need to better protect and conserve the marine biological diversity will result in increasing conflicts among the various users, as well as between the users and the environment. Marine spatial planning as a process to allocate space for specific uses can help to avoid user conflicts, to improve the management of marine spatial claims, and to sustain an ecosystem-based management of ocean and seas. This article explores the rights and duties towards exploitation and protection of the marine environment under the jurisdiction of coastal states as reflected in two important global conventions, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Both Conventions provide the main legal framework for marine spatial planning that have to be taken into account in planning at the regional and national level.     

Key elements and steps in the process of developing ecosystem-based marine spatial planning

Marine spatial planning (MSP) is an essential tool for delivering an Ecosystem Approach and should add value to existing management measures for the marine environment. It should be based on a clear set of principles with a sustainable development purpose. Developing MSP can draw selectively on extensive experiences in terrestrial land use planning. A nested approach with appropriate planning activity at different spatial scales is recommended. Defining appropriate management units is important and particular effort will be required where these do not align with ecosystem boundaries. The timeframe for plans is tending to increase from around 10 to 20+ years, but review periods are required which enable a balance between stability and relevance. This article focuses on the key steps in the planning process of developing ecosystem-based MSP. The importance of setting specific objectives, including as a context for the full range of relevant spatial data, and determining priorities is emphasised. It is also suggested that stakeholder engagement, including the way it is undertaken, is critical to different stages of the process.     

Progress and promise in spatial human dimensions research for ecosystem-based ocean planning

Human activities in ocean environments have resulted in significant impacts to ocean health and diminishing returns to society from these ecosystems. In response, there have been increasing calls for implementing ecosystem-based approaches to ocean planning and management. Such approaches require consideration of the complexity of human relationships with ecosystems including their social, cultural, political, and economic dimensions in order to develop and implement management viable strategies. This article reviews progress in spatial research on human activities and social dimensions of ocean environments and explores the promise this research has for enhancing ecosystem-based ocean planning. A global review reveals growth in the number and sophistication of research on social dimensions of oceans, with an increasing focus on new tools and technologies that involve stakeholders in the production, maintenance, and use of data in planning processes. Notably, most research is undertaken in the developed rather than the developing world, pointing to possible discrepancies in the capacity and resources required to engage this research. There is promising, albeit limited, evidence for the successful use of social data and applied research approaches in ecosystem-based ocean planning initiatives. This review shows that spatial research on the human dimensions of the ocean environments has much potential to engender a more comprehensive understanding of these complex seascapes, and to aid in planning processes aimed at achieving sustainable social and ecological outcomes.     

Marine spatial planning in Scotland. Levelling the playing field?

Marine spatial planning (MSP) is the leading tool for managing human activities at sea. It is designed to assist in decision making for marine resource access and use by considering the actions of those using the resources, interactions between these groups, and their cumulative impact on the natural environment. Being informed by ecosystem based management, MSP recognises that socio-natural systems are complex and that stakeholder and public input are key components of well-informed decision making. Therefore, MSP is rooted in the principles of good governance, including those of participation and transparency. This paper considers MSP processes in Scotland's inshore waters in the context of these good governance principles. The focus is on the institutional arrangements that allow stakeholders and the public to contribute to planning Scotland's seas and coasts. Whilst acknowledging the significant challenges faced by planners, and the work conducted so far, this research suggests that improvements could be made in how – and when – engagement takes place. It appears that at an early stage of introducing MSP in Scotland powerful stakeholders shaped the images, values and principles that guide it, and that including a broader range of actors early on might positively affect the legitimacy and acceptance of MSP in its later stages. The current institutional arrangements do not appear to allow for this. Ultimately, MSP in Scotland is in danger of institutionalising – and thus legitimising – existing power relations between marine resource users, and it does little to level the playing field.     

Commercial fishing, conservation and compatibility in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

A critical issue in marine ecosystem-based management is addressing the compatibility of extractive use with ecosystem protection. Analysis of the protected area planning process for the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands suggests the key elements of an ecosystem-based approach to protected area management include establishing a common understanding among decision makers of ecosystem boundaries and ecosystem condition, informed by the best available science. A participatory process is proposed that relies on an informed assessment of whether extractive use compromises ecological integrity and is consistent with conservation objectives. Best practices for compatibility determinations are proposed for multi-agency protected area management and planning.     

基于生态系统的挪威海海洋环境综合管理计划

为推动我国国土空间规划新视角下的海洋空间规划实践,提升我国海洋综合管理水平,文章概述基于生态系统的挪威海海洋环境综合管理计划的主要内容,并重点分析挪威海的海洋环境空间管理措施。研究结果表明:挪威海海洋环境综合管理计划是基于生态系统的海洋空间规划,建立在良好的海洋环境状况和海洋生物多样性与其栖息地的保护基础之上,以可持续利用海洋资源来实现海洋产业的价值创造与生态系统服务供给;该管理计划制定一系列海洋环境保护措施和人类活动空间管理措施,以实现挪威海海洋环境的有效保护和海洋经济产业的有效管理;挪威海海洋空间规划的发展可为我国国土空间规划涉海内容的编制、海洋资源的可持续利用与海洋产业的快速健康发展提供重要参考。     

Do marine protected areas deliver flows of ecosystem services to support human welfare?

This paper examines the potential relationships between the ecosystem services provided by the coastal and marine environment and the designation of marine protected areas. The hypothesis is that relationships exist between the provision of ecosystem services and the features protected by marine protected areas. It is considered that protection will maintain these features in good ecological condition and in some cases will restore ecological functioning with positive effects on the delivery of ecosystem services, as pressures upon the protected features are reduced. As the number of marine protected area designations grows, system-wide effects to communities from improvements in delivery of a range of ecosystem services may be realised. This paper provides a comparative analysis of the jurisdictional marine protected area policies proposed by the English, Welsh and Scottish Governments. It presents structured assessment matrices developed from the literature and expert opinion, of ecosystem service provision by marine protected habitats and species and applies the findings to a range of existing UK marine protected areas to demonstrate its relevance. The approach and case study findings are discussed within the wider context of marine ecosystem services and marine protected area management.     

A tool to navigate overlaps in fragmented ocean governance

Implementation of marine ecosystem-based management requires improved understanding of existing governance, including gaps and overlaps resulting from fragmented management. Focusing on overlaps, this paper presents a technique using text analysis to assist in the identification of agencies and laws involved in overlaps from a system perspective. The overlaps analysis uses term frequency counts on ocean laws and regulations in conjunction with relevant agency authority. Such information delivered in a transparent user-friendly presentation can help policymakers and other constituents of ecosystem-based management to find existing overlaps as a step to facilitate improved coordination.     

海洋生态监测站建设指南的标准化构建

为指导我国海洋生态监测站的建设,加速推进海洋生态系统长期、定点、持续监测的网络化、规范化建设进程,本研究提出了海洋生态监测站建设指南标准化构建的总体设计理念。通过分析国内外各类长期生态监测网络的建设现状和经验,论述了我国海洋生态系统长期定位监测的研究现状和存在的问题,以及进行海洋生态监测站建设指南构建的重要意义、构建原则、构建目标,并且对海洋生态监测站建站的原则、流程、建设内容与运行维护和管理等方面提出了建设指导,以促进海洋生态监测及其网络体系的健康有序发展,提升海洋生态系统监测预警能力和研究水平。     

海洋负排放技术及其生态治理功能前瞻

工业革命以来,人类活动导致的以二氧化碳为代表的温室气体持续排放,被认为与全球气候变化密切相关,引发诸多极端气候事件,导致海平面上升、海水酸化、海水暖化等一系列环境负面效应。海洋是地球最大的活跃碳库,增汇潜力巨大。为应对全球气候变化,人为干预海洋生态系统、促进其对大气二氧化碳额外吸收封存的海洋负排放技术体系成为国际研究热点。根据负排放技术的应用场景,目前海洋负排放技术体系涵盖侧重于生态保护和修复的滨海湿地蓝碳、侧重于环境友好型养殖产业的海水养殖环境碳汇和借助生态工程技术手段的负排放工程增汇。海洋负排放技术在实现人为增汇的同时,有望通过促进海洋生物的生长和繁殖、提高海洋生态系统的稳定性和抗干扰能力、促进海洋生态系统内部及其与陆地生态系统之间的资源循环利用,发挥其生态治理功能,从而应对海洋环流改变、海水酸化脱氧等全球海洋环境恶化以及人类活动污染的局部胁迫。