The Great Australian Wind Rush and the Devaluation of Landscape Amenity

Up until very recently--and in marked contrast to such countries as Spain, Denmark and Germany--Australia generated hardly any electricity from the wind. Driven largely by the mandatory targets embodied in the Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000 (Commonwealth) this situation is now changing. Australia has several operational small- to medium-sized wind energy power stations in Western Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. But--in the face of often strong local opposition--the Australian Wind Energy Association is keen to increase the number and scale of such projects. This paper outlines recent overseas developments in wind energy and then focuses on the environmental and planning dilemmas posed by this form of electricity production. Particular attention is focused on a highly controversial wind energy proposal in south-western Victoria, the Portland Wind Energy Project (PWEP). The argument presented is that wind is only one of a number of possible renewable energy options, that coastal landscapes are an 'endangered species', and that it is time for geographers to revisit methodologies concerned with evaluating landscape beauty and debating the place of landscape values within the ecologically sustainable development paradigm.     

中国风电减排CO2的成本测算及其时空分异

以风电并网利用为主的风能资源快速开发和利用已产生了显著的能源替代、CO₂减排和推动地区经济发展等良性效应,开展中国风电减排CO₂成本测算及其时空分异的探究对于准确认识风能在能源系统中地位、明确风电发展方向和制定应对气候变化对策具有重要作用。在明确风电电价测算方法和构建风电减排CO₂成本测算模型的基础上,通过对当前中国典型风电项目技术经济数据的收集和分析以及通过学习曲线模型分析,测算了不同风能等级区、不同省份不同时期的中国风电减排CO₂成本。结果表明,在当前水平下,中国在风能极丰富区、丰富区、较丰富区、一般区、贫乏区风电减排CO₂的成本分别为120元/t、182元/t、243元/t、367元/t、737元/t;不同省份减排成本差异很大,最高值和最低值分别为783元/t和39元/t,且呈现出沿海省份减排成本低于内陆省份,减排成本空间分布与风能资源存在一定错位的现象。在2008~2050年期间,中国风电减排CO₂成本呈持续下降趋势,预计在2020年风电开始具备与常规火电竞争的能力。     

中国跨境风电项目的建设模式、梯度转移及减排潜力研究

作为“一带一路”倡议的样板工程和旗舰项目,中巴经济走廊中的风电项目建设已经初现规模。中国在巴基斯坦的工程建设中,风电优先项目涉及的项目金额约为6.47亿元,运营期累计发电量可以达到近180亿千瓦时,可累计减少二氧化碳排放13.90兆吨。伴随跨境风电项目的梯度转移,中国可再生能源项目落地并网取决于东道国的政策制度安排、建设运营模式、设备供应体系以及电价收购协议等。本研究有助于协助沿线国家完善能源政策制度、加快清洁电力发展、应对气候变化、落实碳减排承诺,为绿色“一带一路”建设中可再生能源项目的推广提供借鉴。     

新疆生态经济系统的能值分析与可持续发展研究

能值是生态经济学中用来衡量自然支持系统与经济系统的产品与过程的新概念,在此基础上建立的理论和方法可用于度量来自自然系统的“自然资本”和生态系统服务功能的价值。运用能值理论与方法,对新疆生态经济系统主要资源的贮存价值、总能值用量、能值的流入流出情况、人口承载力、能值投入率、能值使用强度、环境负荷等指标进行了系统研究,并与其他国家的有关指标进行了比较研究,提出了进一步开发新疆资源、实现可持续发展目标的政策建议。     

Global prioritisation of renewable nitrogen for biodiversity conservation and food security

The continuing use of petrochemicals in mineral nitrogen (N) production may be affected by supply or cost issues and climate agreements. Without mineral N, a larger area of cropland is required to produce the same amount of food, impacting biodiversity. Alternative N sources include solar and wind to power the Haber-Bosch process, and the organic options such as green manures, marine algae and aquatic azolla. Solar power was the most land-efficient renewable source of N, with using a tenth as much land as wind energy, and at least 100th as much land as organic sources of N. In this paper, we developed a decision tree to locate these different sources of N at a global scale, or the first time taking into account their spatial footprint and the impact on terrestrial biodiversity while avoiding impact on albedo and cropland, based on global resource and impact datasets. This produced relatively few areas suitable for solar power in the western Americas, central southern Africa, eastern Asia and southern Australia, with areas most suited to wind at more extreme latitudes. Only about 2% of existing solar power stations are in very suitable locations. In regions such as coastal north Africa and central Asia where solar power is less accessible due to lack of farm income, green manures could be used, however, due to their very large spatial footprint only a small area of low productivity and low biodiversity was suitable for this option. Europe in particular faces challenges because it has access to a relatively small area which is suitable for solar or wind power. If we are to make informed decisions about the sourcing of alternative N supplies in the future, and our energy supply more generally, a decision-making mechanism is needed to take global considerations into account in regional land-use planning.     

A Sustainable U.S. Energy Plan

This report gives guidance on what could be done to overcome the political stalemate that has long blocked the creation of a sustainable energy plan, leaving the United States vulnerable to oil imports while emitting large amounts of greenhouse gases. An overall energy policy is suggested for use by political leaders, along with specific goals on climate change and national security. This report proposes a timetable by which the climate change and national security goals should be accomplished. Converting these political goals into a cost-effective energy plan that would continue to get long-term political support would be the task of the technical community. A generic process is described which applies to all future energy systems and would give guidance to the technical community on how to create a mix of energy sources and conservation. This generic process is then tested on three possible energy futures. One energy future proposes that all of our electricity should come from renewable sources within 10 years. It is shown to be inadequate and would exacerbate environmental risks. The second possible energy future adds far more nuclear energy and coal plants with carbon capture and sequestration to the above renewable-only proposal. This second plan was a significant improvement over the all-renewable energy proposal, but does not address how transportation might be accomplished in the future. Converting coal to liquid fuels is identified as the major means to produce liquid fuels, as long as non-carbon dioxide emitting sources of process heat/hydrogen are employed in this coal conversion process. The third proposal, called an Energy Family approach, places first emphasis on conservation and then creates a mix of energy sources, renewable, nuclear, coal, natural gas, and some oil that could meet all the energy demands of a modern society, while staying within environmental and national security limits. This third approach appears to be most likely to get continuing support. There can be significant progress through “Second Generation” conservation, which extracts much more energy from our existing electrical generation and transmission system. Coal would have to undergo a major transformation from producing electricity to producing liquid fuels for transportation. Transportation and space heating and cooling would be far more electrified. Nuclear power would have to be expanded to replace many of the phased out coal plants, to provide electricity for transportation, and to supply high-temperature process heat and hydrogen. Long-term programs need to be put in place to assure nuclear power’s continuing contribution. Finally, energy storage is a component which is often overlooked, but is essential. It could overcome fundamental renewable energy difficulties of variability and the possibility of wind power to create electrical grid instabilities. It is shown that an Energy Family approach could accelerate the development of renewable energy.     

广东省沿海风随高度变化研究

根据实测资料对我省沿海地区的风随高度变化规律进行了探讨，分析了沿海地区风向、风速变化特点，风速廓线指数律适合于我省沿海地区，根据指数律拟合的我省沿海地区风随高度变化系数小于目前各类规范所规定的系数。     

服务全球生物多样性和食物安全的可再生氮利用优先选择（英文）

The continuing use of petrochemicals in mineral nitrogen(N) production may be affected by supply or cost issues and climate agreements.Without mineral N,a larger area of cropland is required to produce the same amount of food,impacting biodiversity.Alternative N sources include solar and wind to power the Haber-Bosch process,and the organic options such as green manures,marine algae and aquatic azolla.Solar power was the most land-efficient renewable source of N,with using a tenth as much land as wind energy,and at least 100 th as much land as organic sources of N.In this paper,we developed a decision tree to locate these different sources of N at a global scale,or the first time taking into account their spatial footprint and the impact on terrestrial biodiversity while avoiding impact on albedo and cropland,based on global resource and impact datasets.This produced relatively few areas suitable for solar power in the western Americas,central southern Africa,eastern Asia and southern Australia,with areas most suited to wind at more extreme latitudes.Only about 2% of existing solar power stations are in very suitable locations.In regions such as coastal north Africa and central Asia where solar power is less accessible due to lack of farm income,green manures could be used,however,due to their very large spatial footprint only a small area of low productivity and low biodiversity was suitable for this option.Europe in particular faces challenges because it has access to a relatively small area which is suitable for solar or wind power.If we are to make informed decisions about the sourcing of alternative N supplies in the future,and our energy supply more generally,a decision-making mechanism is needed to take global considerations into account in regional land-use planning.     

中国煤炭资源供应格局演变及流动路径分析

利用1949—2008年的相关统计数据,分析中国煤炭资源供应格局和流动路径,结果表明:(1)国家政策变动对中国煤炭资源消费规模影响深刻,每一次政策变化都会造成能源消费规模的波动,近年来强烈的能源需求使得我国煤炭供应不得不面临进口的现实;(2)受能源需求和资源禀赋的双重压力,大规模、跨区域、长距离的煤炭运输成为我国能源运输体系的重要特征;(3)尽管煤炭运输方式在向铁路、水路和公路组合并用的多元化发展,但仍然不能满足旺盛的能源需求,煤炭运输瓶颈始终存在,变输煤为输电是缓解当前煤炭运输困难的一个途径。     

Access to electricity for all and the role of decentralized solar power in sub-Saharan Africa

ABSTRACT

Several hundred million people in sub-Saharan Africa are at risk of being without access to electricity by 2030 despite the ongoing work aimed at achieving the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 7—sustainable energy for all. Based on qualitative interviews, quantitative surveys, observation, and participation in Kenya and Senegal between 2010 and 2018, the author aims to explain why the rate of progress is slower than intended. The findings highlight three strong hindrances: lack of affordability due to extreme poverty, mismatch between the village-level outreach of grid-based electricity systems and the geography of settlements, and lack of consideration given to gender inequality. The findings also provide new insights into the ways that decentralized small-scale solar power increasingly meets some of the shortcomings of centralized grids in addressing these three issues, even in rural areas where grids are already present. The author concludes that the ways in which village communities have combined the use of solar-powered energy with grid-supplied energy indicates the importance of the former and the need to intensify efforts to improve solar power delivery models and integrate them fully in energy sector strategies.     

波浪能、海上风能资源开发前景展望

在能源危机日益严峻的当今世界,人类将目光聚焦新能源,尤其是资源丰富的海洋能．本研究对波浪能、海上风能资源的评估方法及开发利用现状展开讨论,介绍了海浪发电装置的类别、国内外先进的海浪发电装置,同时展望了海浪发电、海上风力发电、风力海浪联合发电等措施的前景,为缓解能源危机,促进人类的可持续发展提供参考．     

南极麦克斯韦尔湾及邻近海域高锰酸钾指数研究

为了研究南极水域的污染状况,于１９９３年１２月～１９９４年２月对南极麦克斯韦尔湾及邻近海域的高锰酸钾指数（ＣＯＤＭｎ）的变化和分布状况进行了监测。３９个站次的测值在０．３３４～１．９５９ｍｇ／Ｌ之间,符合中国《海水水质标准》（ＧＢ３０９７－８２）第一类水质（３．０００ｍｇ／Ｌ）要求。各考察站附近的测值高;长城湾内高于湾口及湾外。分析了湾内、湾口和湾外在１９９３年１２月、１９９４年１月及２月的变化情况和原因;对ＣＯＤＭｎ的主要来源进行了研究分析;并对南极长城站及邻近海域的环境保护和研究提出了建议。     

Eco-economic evolution, emergy evaluation and policy options for the sustainable development of Tibet

l introductionTibet-the name alone conjures up visions of mystery and fantasy, visions of spirituality, exotic andmysticism. On the face of it this cloud of mystery was not surprising. Because of its geographicalisolation and lack of roads and modem communication netWorks for so many years, just line manymountain areas of China, Tibet escaped, for most part, the development opportUnities in the world duringthe 18th and 19th centUries, and almost half of the 20th centUry. In 1950 Tibet was a…     

中国风电设备制造业发展与空间格局研究

区域新兴产业的发展是经济地理学的关注重点。尤其在全球气候变化和能源危机背景下,新能源产业的发展和区位特征备受关注。本文选取风电设备制造这一战略性新兴产业作为研究对象,根据2005-2012年《中国风电装机容量统计》整理了中国风电设备制造企业数据库,发现中国的内资风电设备制造企业大多由相关装备制造业企业投资设立,并位于投资企业所在城市;外资风电设备制造企业倾向于布局在装备制造业基础雄厚的城市。风电设备制造业企业的空间扩展即子公司主要集中在三北(东北、华北和西北)和东部沿海等风力资源丰富和风电场重点建设的地区。在实证部分,利用零膨胀负二项模型探讨中国风电设备企业及其子公司区位选择的影响因素,结果表明：①风力资源禀赋主要影响风电设备企业子公司的区位选择,风力资源丰富的地区城市风电设备企业子公司个数较多;②产业基础主要影响风电设备企业母公司区位选择;③地方政府支持主要影响风电设备企业子公司的区位选择;④风力资源禀赋、产业基础和地方政府支持同时作用时,产业基础是最重要的影响因素。研究结果对风电设备企业的区位选择和地方政府有针对性的产业政策制定有指导意义。     

青海西部黄瓜梁地区风能资源的观测与评估

 塔的观测资料,计算了风速、平均风功率密度等参数,利用风能评估方法分析了风能参数、风向频率的变化规律及其特征。结果表明,观测年度10～100 m年平均风速和年平均风功率密度分别在4.0～5.2 m·s-1、83.5～200.2 W·m-2之间,且随高度的升高而增大。测风塔各高度3～25 m·s-1风速的时数在4 560～5 316 h之间,最多风向为偏西北风、次多风向为偏东北风。风能密度主要集中在W—NNW和NNE—NE扇区,累积频率分别达60%和29%。观测年50 m高度风速距平百分率偏小（-5.15%）,长年代校正的年平均风功率密度值为192.3 W·m-2,达到了1级（＜200 W·m-2）并网型风力发电的风电场等级标准,指示这个区域的风能资源比较丰富。     

欧盟碳减排目标的经济可能性评估

经济发展与能源消耗有着密切的关系,文章通过选取1994年至2009年欧盟27国的人口、经济和能源数据,利用碳排放动力学模型对欧盟关于2050年前削减温室气体排放80-95%的承诺进行预测,并对欧盟目标下的减排情景进行了分析。结果表明：（1）以当前的技术进步速率下,沿最优平稳经济增长路线,到2050年欧盟的碳排放量将为775.608MtC,达不到预定的减排要求;（2）在最优经济增长速度得出总能源消费量的基础上,采用调整能源结构与碳捕捉技术,预期可以达到设定减排80%的任务。其每一期的煤炭占比、石油占比、天然气占比应分别有4%、2.26%、1.23%转移至非碳能源占比,非碳能源的上升速率应达到2.21%/年;（3）若以历史的能源结构转移趋势预测未来的能源结构占比,即使考虑能源利用效率和碳捕捉技术的预期目标,欧盟仍然达不到在2050年的减排目标;（4）考虑欧盟提出的四种减排路径上下限组合,可预计出到2050年欧盟的减排范围在80.51%-87.16%;（5）若欧盟重振工业（特别是制造业）,即使考虑欧盟制定的减排路径,仍存在着达不到减排预期的可能。     

THE ENERGY OF RAINDROPS

Høgh-Schmidt, K. & Brogaard, S.: The energy of raindrops, Geografisk Tidsskrift: 24–29. København juni 1, 1976.

In soil erosion the precipitation energy is one of the main factors. It is generally expressed as the gravitional energy of the drops, but normally these also have a horizontal movement, i. e. an energy in the wind direction. By means of a simple mathematical model, the velocity of a drop can be calculated approximately and its dependence on wind velocity and wind profile is discussed. When the size distribution of the drops is known, the total precipitation energy can be determined, and it is demonstrated that the total energy is a function of the wind velocity and generally also of the shape of the wind profile.     

风电场对环境的影响研究进展

风能作为清洁和环境友好的可再生能源,可以减少对化石燃料的依赖,因而近年来发展迅速。但风电设施在安装和运行过程中,评价其对环境产生的影响却尚未得到足够的重视。本文综述了风电场施工和运行过程对气候变化及陆地生态系统的可能影响,同时探讨了风电设施所产生的噪声污染及辐射效应,认为未来风电研究的重要方向为：①评价风电场对气候的影响,还需要建立或改进更精细的气候模型;②探讨风电场对动物的影响,需要识别到底哪些环境因子对动物活动起到了决定性的作用,这些因子在不同风电场中是否具有普遍性;③分析风电场对植被的影响,需要综合利用遥感监测及生态学调查方法,才能准确识别不同陆地生态系统植被对风电场的响应机制;④研究风电场对生态系统碳、氮循环的影响,要加强地表实测数据的获取,尤其是连续多年的数据获取,形成长期的观测序列,进行时空尺度的分析;⑤风电场在全球不同区域,对各环境要素的影响并不完全一致,通过对典型区域的研究来反映风电场对环境影响的共性问题,是目前较为可行的方法;⑥在确保风能作为新能源发展重点的同时,还需保护整个陆地生态系统的生产力和生物多样性,在此基础上才能准确评价、处理风电场与可持续发展的关系;⑦在风电场建设前的环评阶段,需要补充完善现有环评导则和标准,充分考虑风能、太阳能等新兴能源对环境长期而复杂的影响;⑧中国作为世界风能利用的第一大国,需要适时建立长期定位观测试验站,以期开展风电场对环境影响的定量化、全过程、时空尺度的细致研究。本文可为人类科学合理的利用风能、处理风电场建设与可持续发展的关系是提供一些思路。     

基于RWEQ的20世纪90年代以来内蒙古锡林郭勒盟土壤风蚀研究

土壤风蚀是中国北方地区重要的生态环境问题。锡林郭勒盟位于中国干旱、半干旱地区,是中国北方典型风蚀区,其特殊的地理位置又使得本区成为华北重要的生态屏障,为此锡林郭勒盟全区均划入了京津风沙源治理工程区。为了更好地阐明锡林郭勒盟的土壤风力侵蚀过程,指导区域的荒漠化防治,,基于气象、遥感数据,利用RWEQ模型定量分析了20 世纪90 年代以来锡林郭勒盟的土壤风蚀时空格局,揭示土壤风蚀的主要影响因素。研究表明：锡林郭勒盟多年平均土壤风蚀量为3.39 亿t。土壤风蚀强度以微度和轻度为主,主要集中在植被较好,风蚀力较低,降雨量较高,雪被覆盖地表时间较长的东、中部地区以及南部地区。侵蚀强度为中度以上的侵蚀区集中在苏尼特右旗、正镶白旗和正蓝旗的浑善达克沙地;90 年代以来,锡林郭勒盟的土壤风蚀强度总体上呈减弱趋势,主要与风场强度的减弱,植被盖度等的变化有关。土壤风蚀多发生于风蚀力较大的春季,风蚀强度较大区域的春季植被盖度与风蚀量呈显著负相关（r>0.7,p<0.01）,且近20 年植被盖度提升有效降低了该区域的土壤风蚀。     

中国能源-粮食生产对水资源竞争的关系——基于水足迹的视角

通过对水-能源-粮食系统的定量分析,能更好的探究三者之间的协同作用,对提高区域资源综合利用效率、促进区域可持续发展具有重要意义。本文基于水足迹视角探讨了1990—2017年中国31个地区能源-粮食生产对水资源的竞争关系,并借助ESTDA模型框架对其时空动态特征进行分析。结果表明：① 中国化石能源水足迹的时间演变特征可分为缓慢下降-快速上升-平稳下降3个阶段,其中化石能源灰水足迹平均占化石能源水足迹的70%以上;电力水足迹呈持续上升态势,其中电力蓝水足迹平均占电力水足迹的70%以上;粮食蓝水足迹上升幅度明显,平均占农业用水总量的70%以上。② 能源-粮食水足迹总量空间分布格局受区域资源禀赋差异影响较大。③ 时间序列上,中国能源-粮食生产对水资源竞争指数呈逐年上升态势;空间分布上,同时兼顾能源生产与粮食生产的黄河中下游区、东北地区为竞争指数高值集聚区,其余地区竞争指数相对较小。④ LISA时间路径分析显示,中国南方地区能源-粮食水资源竞争指数的空间格局的稳定性比北方更强;各地区在不同程度上均受局部结构的时空依赖效应影响;竞争指数空间格局变化具有较强的整合性且空间凝聚性较强。⑤ 能源-粮食生产对水资源的竞争在短期内难以得到有效缓解。