Progress and promise in spatial human dimensions research for ecosystem-based ocean planning

Human activities in ocean environments have resulted in significant impacts to ocean health and diminishing returns to society from these ecosystems. In response, there have been increasing calls for implementing ecosystem-based approaches to ocean planning and management. Such approaches require consideration of the complexity of human relationships with ecosystems including their social, cultural, political, and economic dimensions in order to develop and implement management viable strategies. This article reviews progress in spatial research on human activities and social dimensions of ocean environments and explores the promise this research has for enhancing ecosystem-based ocean planning. A global review reveals growth in the number and sophistication of research on social dimensions of oceans, with an increasing focus on new tools and technologies that involve stakeholders in the production, maintenance, and use of data in planning processes. Notably, most research is undertaken in the developed rather than the developing world, pointing to possible discrepancies in the capacity and resources required to engage this research. There is promising, albeit limited, evidence for the successful use of social data and applied research approaches in ecosystem-based ocean planning initiatives. This review shows that spatial research on the human dimensions of the ocean environments has much potential to engender a more comprehensive understanding of these complex seascapes, and to aid in planning processes aimed at achieving sustainable social and ecological outcomes.     

How sustainable is sustainable marine spatial planning? Part I—Linking the concepts

Marine spatial planning (MSP) has emerged worldwide as a tool for sustainable ocean governance. This paper reviews how sustainability and ecosystem-based management (EBM) have been included so far within the MSP general framework, by carrying out: (1) a review on the links between sustainability, EBM and MSP in EU maritime policy initiatives; (2) an analysis on the differences between ecosystem-based MSP versus MSP focused on delivering blue growth; and (3) a discussion on how adaptive management may address some of the main challenges found in achieving sustainable ocean management. From the EU Green Paper (2006) to the MSP Directive Proposal (2013), MSP processes based on the principle of EBM have been recognized as a necessary tool to ensure maritime sustainable development. Although ecosystem-based MSP has been recently presented as the best way to ensure both ecosystem conservation and development of human activities, most national and European MSP initiatives seem to follow a MSP approach focused in delivering blue growth. A challenge, therefore, arises: how to adjust policy decisions to properly preserve ecosystems and the services they provide? If truly implemented, an adaptive approach seems to be a way forward in ensuring that spatial planning, management and policy-making in marine spaces can be continuously adjusted, thus allowing for sustainability.     

The importance of marine spatial planning in advancing ecosystem-based sea use management

During the past 10 years, the evolution of marine spatial planning (MSP) and ocean zoning has become a crucial step in making ecosystem-based, sea use management a reality. The idea was initially stimulated by international and national interest in developing marine protected areas, e.g., the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. More recent attention has been placed on managing the multiple use of marine space, especially in areas where conflicts among users and the environment are already clear, e.g., in the North Sea. Even more recent concern has focused on the need to conserve nature, especially ecologically and biologically sensitive areas, in the context of multi-use planning of ocean space. Despite academic discussions and the fact that some countries already have started implementation, the scope of MSP has not been clearly defined. Terms such as integrated management, marine spatial management, and ocean zoning are all used inconsistently. This is one of the reasons why its importance is not more seriously reflected at the levels of policy and decision-making in most countries. This article attempts to deal with this problem. It describes why MSP is an essential step to achieve ecosystem-based sea use management, how it can be defined and what its core objectives are. The article concludes with an analysis of the use and achievements of MSP worldwide, with particular focus on new approaches in Europe.     

A tool to navigate overlaps in fragmented ocean governance

Implementation of marine ecosystem-based management requires improved understanding of existing governance, including gaps and overlaps resulting from fragmented management. Focusing on overlaps, this paper presents a technique using text analysis to assist in the identification of agencies and laws involved in overlaps from a system perspective. The overlaps analysis uses term frequency counts on ocean laws and regulations in conjunction with relevant agency authority. Such information delivered in a transparent user-friendly presentation can help policymakers and other constituents of ecosystem-based management to find existing overlaps as a step to facilitate improved coordination.     

基于生态系统服务的海洋健康评估与调控:以莱州湾为例

近岸海域的生态系统管理,要求对海洋健康进行综合的评估以及对人工调控进行科学的指导,进而促进可持续发展。本文构建了定量化方法,用于评估当前的和近期的基于生态系统服务的海洋健康。以莱州湾为例的研究结果表明,当前的海洋健康指数分值为0.7856(总分为1.0);通过对负面压力进行不同强度的人工调控,得到近期海洋健康预计的变化范围为0.5551到0.8041。具体地说,本文评估得到当前的海洋健康主要表现为文化服务和供给服务基本优秀,而支持服务和调节服务不够良好。若不对持续增长的压力采取有效的调控措施,该近岸海域生态系统会在近期丧失部分支持服务和调节服务;若负面压力被完全控制,该近岸海域生态系统服务的分类等级会得到小幅提升。另外,应进一步加强对生态系统服务尤其是文化服务和调节服务的宣传教育。本文的分析过程和量化结果,为进一步指导人工调控提供了灵活的工具,有助于海岸带区域的生态系统管理。     

Marine bioregional plans and implementation issues: Australia's oceans policy process

Australia's Oceans Policy, released in 1998, established a new, national approach for ecosystem-based ocean management that proposed the integration of sectoral and jurisdictional interests. Implementation was to be achieved through innovative institutions delivering ecosystem based management through Regional Marine Plans, now referred to as marine bioregional plans that are legislatively grounded via the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth). This paper argues that the original focus of the implementation process has changed, reflecting a lack of jurisdictional integration and an environmental focus that prioritises marine protected area management. It examines where the oceans policy stands today and the policy gap in terms of the lofty aspirations of Australia's Oceans Policy and implementation efforts.     

A framework for the analysis of sustainability indicator systems in fisheries

The development of sustainability indicator systems (SIS) has been a response to practically apply and interpret ecosystem-based and precautionary approaches to fisheries management. Fisheries- based indicator systems have been characterised by recognition of their utility, but hampered by a lack of data, clear roles and responsibilities and an uneven distribution of implementation across governance jurisdictions. This paper explores a policy-based holistic model of an indicator system consisting of inputs, core structures and outputs and uses this as the basis of an assessment framework. The framework is applied to two recent reporting systems: the Australian government's Commonwealth Sustainable Fisheries Assessments and the Marine Stewardship Council initiative.     

Conservation values in marine ecosystem-based management

Proactive ecosystem-based management represents a turning point in ocean management, because it formally recognizes the need to balance the potentially competing uses of the ocean, including aquaculture, energy production, conservation, fishing, and recreation. A significant challenge in implementing this balancing act arises from explicitly incorporating conservation in a decision-making framework that embraces assessments of trade-offs between benefits from conservation and conventional commercial uses of marine resources. An economic efficiency-based framework for evaluating trade-offs is utilized, and, for illustration, applied to assess the relative benefits and costs of conservation actions for the endangered western stock of the Steller Sea Lion (wSSL) in Alaska, USA. The example highlights many scientific and political challenges of using empirical estimates of the benefits and costs to evaluate conservation actions in the decision process, particularly given the public's large conservation values for the wSSL. The example also highlights the need to engage in stakeholder discussions on how to incorporate conservation into ecosystem-based management, and more specifically, coastal and marine spatial planning (CMSP). Without explicit consideration of these issues, it is unclear whether CMSP will better conserve and utilize ocean resources than the status quo.     

Guiding ecological principles for marine spatial planning

The declining health of marine ecosystems around the world is evidence that current piecemeal governance is inadequate to successfully support healthy coastal and ocean ecosystems and sustain human uses of the ocean. One proposed solution to this problem is ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (MSP), which is a process that informs the spatial distribution of activities in the ocean so that existing and emerging uses can be maintained, use conflicts reduced, and ecosystem health and services protected and sustained for future generations. Because a key goal of ecosystem-based MSP is to maintain the delivery of ecosystem services that humans want and need, it must be based on ecological principles that articulate the scientifically recognized attributes of healthy, functioning ecosystems. These principles should be incorporated into a decision-making framework with clearly defined targets for these ecological attributes. This paper identifies ecological principles for MSP based on a synthesis of previously suggested and/or operationalized principles, along with recommendations generated by a group of twenty ecologists and marine scientists with diverse backgrounds and perspectives on MSP. The proposed four main ecological principles to guide MSP—maintaining or restoring: native species diversity, habitat diversity and heterogeneity, key species, and connectivity—and two additional guidelines, the need to account for context and uncertainty, must be explicitly taken into account in the planning process. When applied in concert with social, economic, and governance principles, these ecological principles can inform the designation and siting of ocean uses and the management of activities in the ocean to maintain or restore healthy ecosystems, allow delivery of marine ecosystem services, and ensure sustainable economic and social benefits.     

New metrics for managing and sustaining the ocean's bounty

Policies are arising around the world, most recently in the United States, that mandate the implementation of marine spatial planning as a practical pathway towards ecosystem-based management. In the new United States ocean policy, and several other cases around the globe, ecosystem services are at the core of marine spatial planning, but there is little guidance on how ecosystem services should be measured, making it hard to implement this new approach. A new framework is shown here for practical, rigorous ecosystem service measurement that highlights contributions from both natural and social systems. The novel three-step framework addresses traditional shortcomings of an ecosystem services approach by giving managers and scientists the tools to assess and track: (1) the condition of the ecosystem (supply metrics), (2) the amount of ocean resources actually used or enjoyed by people (service metrics), and (3) people's preference for that level of service (value metrics). This framework will allow real world progress on marine spatial planning to happen quickly, and with a greater chance for success.     

Ecosystem-based fisheries management: progress in the NE Atlantic

Fisheries management in the NE Atlantic has recently adopted a precautionary approach to setting catch limits. This has been accompanied by the development of more complex and multi-species modelling tools for predicting stock size and structure. The scientific community are now being asked to provide an ‘ecosystem-based approach’ to fisheries management. In this paper, we consider the science needs of this shift to a consideration of more complex systems to include both ecological and socio-economic components. At present, this involves use of the precautionary approach and multi-species management regimes, but will need to include multi-annual quota assessment, ‘stake-holder’ involvement and marine protected areas. How will these approaches sit together and how will science support them? As an example, we will consider what management of the North Sea demersal fishery may involve in 20 years time.     

The many faces of ecosystem-based management: Making the process work today in real places

Despite the widely accepted need for ecosystem-based management of coastal and marine systems, many managers struggle with how to put these principles into practice. Commonly voiced concerns include complicated and expensive implementation, prohibitive data requirements, and lack of testing with long-term applications. We address some of these perceived barriers by providing guidance on strategies and approaches that can be used for the steps of one ecosystem-based management process, the integrated ecosystem assessment framework, including scoping, defining indicators, setting thresholds, risk analysis, management strategy evaluation, monitoring and evaluation. Importantly, we demonstrate how an ecosystem-based management approach can be utilized in a variety of contexts which vary widely in data quality and availability, governance structure, and time frame. We then illustrate the suggested steps in the process by exploring two case studies that represent realistic ends of the data/governance/time frame spectrum: Puget Sound, Washington, USA and Raja Ampat, Indonesia. By providing concrete suggestions for how to move forward with key steps in an integrated management process, we show that ecosystem-based management is feasible from a range of starting points and that for any given starting point there are numerous productive paths forward.     

Producing nature and enacting difference in ecosystem-based fisheries management: An example from the Northeastern US

The science and management of marine resources is increasingly grappling with the use of ecosystem-based fisheries management. Though ecosystem-based fisheries management seeks to unite biological and sociocultural concerns into a holistic framework, people are often seen simply as external drivers of change. The technical questions that are often posed, such as the delineation of boundaries or the strategies of governance, are however more broadly questions concerning the social production of nature. This paper explores these issues by analyzing both the spatial fishing practices of different fishermen and the results of a series of workshops held in New England to solicit opinions about ecosystem-based fisheries management. The paper emphasizes teasing apart the human dimensions of fishing embedded in predominant notions such as fishing effort through more explicit consideration of spatially based resource dependencies and mutual constitution of society-nature.     

Bringing stakeholders,scientists, and managers together through an integrated ecosystem assessment process

For decades, the scientific community has conducted essential background research and developed appropriate modeling tools in support of an ecosystem-based approach to natural resource management. Resource managers and the public, however, lack a clear roadmap for working with scientists to move beyond the traditional single-species approach. With current management processes so strongly focused on working in a species-by-species framework, there are entrenched cultural and institutional challenges to shifting those processes toward ecosystem-based management. We propose using the integrated ecosystem assessment process to both develop new management ideas for a particular ecosystem, and to help shift public policy processes and perceptions to embrace ecosystem approaches to management.     

The missing middle: Central Arctic Ocean gaps in fishery research and science coordination

The warming global climate is reducing sea-ice coverage in the central Arctic, transforming a mostly inaccessible marine region into a 'new' and relatively poorly studied ocean. History shows that exploitation of newly accessible natural resources tends to precede effective research and management measures. But in response to increasing access to the central Arctic, a precautionary approach has been taking hold, with broad political and scientific support culminating in the Oslo Declaration of 2015, which aims to prevent unregulated high seas fishing in the central Arctic. Negotiations toward a full binding agreement are continuing. Formal efforts toward assessing knowledge of the Arctic marine ecosystems and coordinating research are underway, and practitioner-based research coordination and collaboration in the region is also ongoing. Yet broad gaps in our current marine research and coordination exist, and this paper draws attention to the spatial middle, middle trophics, and the middle scale — an Arctic 'missing middle'. Scientific activity in the central Arctic Ocean region is burgeoning in recent years, and a large number of initiatives, projects, and arrangements are meeting some of the need for coordination. But full pan-Arctic scientific coordination does not yet exist. In support of ecosystem-based and precautionary management of the central Arctic Ocean, this paper considers a fully Arctic-focused organization that can both orchestrate and prioritize marine research in the Arctic in view of policy imperatives, and bring emerging scientific understanding of the region directly into the discussion and formation of new policy.     

Policy relevance of biogeographic classification for conservation and management of marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction, and the GOODS biogeographic classification

This article 1) examines the policy context that created a demand for biogeographic information, 2) describes early national and regional experiences in applying biogeographic classifications, 3) extracts lessons about their usefulness, 4) introduces a broad-scale biogeographic classification for the open ocean and deep seabed called the Global Open Ocean and Deep Seabed (GOODS) biogeographic classification and explains its relevance in this policy context. In so doing it highlights potential uses of biogeographic classifications for the open ocean and deep seabed: these include ecosystem-based management approaches, marine spatial planning and identification of representative networks of MPAs. It also discusses approaches for dealing with problems of uncertainty and connectivity. The article concludes with recommendations for the further development of the GOODS and finer-scale biogeographic classifications.     

Zoning strategies for marine protected areas in Taiwan: Case study of Gueishan Island in Yilan County,Taiwan

According to the United Nations (UN) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, there has been a dramatic decline in global biodiversity. The UN has made a global appeal for all countries to mitigate their impact on the environment. Marine environmental protection is one of the most critical and urgent issues in the world and many countries have commenced establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) by implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) concepts. MPA planning has been considered one of the simplest and most effective methods to protect marine environments. Taiwan has recently developed policies that have focused on its marine environment, and there are plans to increase the size of Taiwan׳s MPAs to 20% of its total ocean territory by 2020, thereby achieving a sustainable ocean. To achieve this goal, the government must address specific difficulties associated with the location of MPAs and relevant zoning strategies. This study establishes MPA protection principles and a zoning framework for MPAs in Taiwan by using Gueishan Island in Yilan County as a case study site to examine specific zoning strategies. The protection of 3 objectives (hydrothermal vents, cetacean, and fisheries resources) is discussed in this paper. Multi-criteria spatial analysis and a geographic information system are applied to identify the most crucial area to protect. To understand the stakeholders׳ opinions and concerns regarding the proposed zoning framework, this research conducted in-depth interviews with experts and stakeholders. MPAs zoning strategies are formulated at the conclusion of this study that could assist in protecting critical marine resources and avoiding conflicts among various usages of the marine area.     

多源异构海量海洋数据综合管理平台构建研究

为满足海洋应用对数据管理的需求, 针对海洋数据的特点, 采用分层的思想提出了一个海洋数据综合管理平台的体系结构, 并对海洋数据的共享, 构建海洋元数据和海洋数据安全性管理等关键问题分别给出解决方案。通过一个基于B/S 的多源异构海量海洋数据综合管理平台的实现表明本文的方法是可行且有效的。     

The international legal framework for marine spatial planning

Increasing demand for ocean resources, both living and non-living, have already lead to loss of biodiversity, habitat depletion and irreversible damage to the marine environment. Furthermore, introduction of new kinds of sea uses, spatial extension of ongoing sea uses and the need to better protect and conserve the marine biological diversity will result in increasing conflicts among the various users, as well as between the users and the environment. Marine spatial planning as a process to allocate space for specific uses can help to avoid user conflicts, to improve the management of marine spatial claims, and to sustain an ecosystem-based management of ocean and seas. This article explores the rights and duties towards exploitation and protection of the marine environment under the jurisdiction of coastal states as reflected in two important global conventions, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Both Conventions provide the main legal framework for marine spatial planning that have to be taken into account in planning at the regional and national level.     

An innovation and agency perspective on the emergence and spread of Marine Spatial Planning

The roles of governance and technological innovation have been widely recognized as important parts of sustainability transitions. However, less attention has been paid to understanding the mechanisms of the emergence and spread of innovative ideas for stewardship of social–ecological systems. This study considers how theories of innovation and agency are able to provide explanatory power regarding the spread and impact of such ideas. This includes how innovations may contribute to resolving the mismatches between the scale of ecological processes and the scale of governance of ecosystems. The emergence and spread of Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is used as an illustrative case study. The study shows that individuals embedded in informal networks have played a key role in driving the emergence of MSP across scales and in constantly re-framing the tool in order to overcome obstacles to adoption and implementation. In a number of cases, MSP has been decoupled from the ecosystem despite being framed as a tool for ecosystem-based management. Finally, this study is important to understand the process of emergence of new integrated tools for ecosystem stewardship at the global level.