Finite element formulation and algorithms for unsaturated soils. Part II: Verification and application

The finite‐element formulation and integration algorithms developed in Part I are used to analyse a number of practical problems involving unsaturated and saturated soils. The formulation and algorithms perform well for all the cases analysed, with the robustness of the latter being largely insensitive to user‐defined parameters such as the number of coarse time steps and error control tolerances. The efficiency of the algorithms, as measured by the CPU time consumed, does not depend on the number of coarse time steps, but may be influenced by the error control tolerances. Based on the analyses presented here, typical values for the error control tolerances are suggested. It is also shown that the constitutive modelling framework presented in Part I can, by adjusting one constitutive equation and one or two material parameters, be used to simulate soils that expand or collapse upon wetting. Treating the suction as a strain variable instead of a stress variable proves to be an efficient and robust way of solving suction‐dependent plastic yielding. Moreover, the concept of the constitutive stress is a particularly convenient way of handling the transition between saturation and unsaturation. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Structurally controlled gold and sulfosalt mineralization: the Altenberg example, Salzburg Province, Austria

Summary ?In the south-eastern Altenbergkar–Silbereck area in the eastern Tauern window (Lungau, Salzburg) structurally controlled precious-metal (Au–Ag) mineralization is hosted in marbles of the Permo(?)-Mesozoic Silbereck Formation and in the underlying Variscan Central gneiss. During the Alpine otogeny both lithologies were affected by ductile deformation (shearing, D1; folding, D2/D3) and subsequent brittle deformation (tension gashes, D4; normal faulting, D5) related to the uplift and exhumation of the Tauern window. Mineralization is controlled by brittle D4 structures. NE–SW trending steeply dipping tension gashes of the “Tauerngoldgang” type occur within the Central gneiss. Three different marble-hosted ore types following fracture systems as well as foliation and bedding planes can be distinguished: 1) metasomatic replacement ores, 2) ores in tension gashes and 3) ores in talc-bearing structures, often containing high-grade gold and silver mineralization (native gold in association with Ag–Pb–Bi–sulfosalts). Four stages of mineralization can be distinguished which occur in all ore types: arsenopyrite–pyrite–pyrrhotite (first stage), Au–(Ag–Pb–Bi–sulfosalts) (second stage), base-metal sulfides and tetrahedrite–tennantite (third stage) and Ag-rich galena (fourth stage). Preliminary fluid inclusion data indicate temperatures of ore formation well above 300 °C (346 °C mean) for the second stage within the Central gneiss and temperatures between 310 and 230 °C for the second and third stages in the marble. Received October 12, 2001; revised version accepted September 5, 2002 Published online March 10, 2003     

Effect of metamorphism and partial melting of host rocks on zircons

Abstract Zircons have been studied from different layers of migmatites (from Arvika, western Sweden and Nelaug, southern Norway) and from a paragneiss (from Arvika) associated with one of the migmatites. The main purpose of the investigation is to establish whether or not information about zircons can help in the elucidation of the parentage and rock-forming processes of migmatites.
The elongation ratio of zircons from all layers is small and characteristic of sedimentary zircons. Further, the absence of characteristic colours and the growth trends of the zircons (indicated by the reduced major axes) observed in the various samples both support a sedimentary parentage for these rocks. The zircons of all layers exhibit secondary growth (overgrowth, outgrowth and multiple growth) due to metamorphism. Compared with the zircons from the paragneiss, those of the migmatite layers are more clouded and less rounded, some of them becoming opaque or even skeletal; this is especially true of the zircons from the leucosomes. These observations indicate an alteration of the original sedimentary zircons in the migmatite, especially in the leucosomes, in response to the migmatization process, previously interpreted as partial melting.     

Bond rolling resistance and its effect on yielding of bonded granulates by DEM analyses

A discrete element modelling of bonded granulates and investigation on the bond effect on their behaviour are very important to geomechanics. This paper presents a two‐dimensional (2‐D) discrete element theory for bonded granulates with bond rolling resistance and provides a numerical investigation into the effect of bond rolling resistance on the yielding of bonded granulates. The model consists of mechanical contact models and equations governing the motion of bonded particles. The key point of the theory is that the assumption in the original bond contact model previously proposed by the authors (55th CSCE‐ASCE Conference, Hamilton, Ont., Canada, 2002; 313–320; J. Eng. Mech. (ASCE) 2005; 131 (11):1209–1213) that bonded particles are in contact at discrete points, is here replaced by a more reliable assumption that bonded particles are in contact over a width. By making the idealization that the bond contact width is continuously distributed with the normal/tangential basic elements (BE) (each BE is composed of spring, dashpot, bond, slider or divider), we establish a bond rolling contact model together with bond normal/tangential contact models, and also relate the governing equations to local equilibrium. Only one physical parameter β needs to be introduced in the theory in comparison to the original bond discrete element model. The model has been implemented into a 2‐D distinct element method code, NS2D. Using the NS2D, a total of 86 1‐D, constant stress ratio, and biaxial compressions tests have been carried out on the bonded granular samples of different densities, bonding strengths and rolling resistances. The numerical results show that: (i) the new theory predicts a larger internal friction angle, a larger yielding stress, more brittle behaviour and larger final broken contact ratio than the original bond model; (ii) the yielding stress increases nonlinearly with the increasing value of β, and (iii) the first‐yield curve (initiation of bond breakage), which define a zone of none bond breakage and which shape and size are affected by the material density, is amplified by the bond rolling resistance in analogous to that predicted by the original bond model. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Numerical manifold method for dynamic nonlinear analysis of saturated porous media

It is well known that the Babuska–Brezzi stability criterion or the Zienkiewicz–Taylor patch test precludes the use of the finite elements with the same low order of interpolation for displacement and pore pressure in the nearly incompressible and undrained cases, unless some stabilization techniques are introduced for dynamic analysis of saturated porous medium where coupling occurs between the displacement of solid skeleton and pore pressure. The numerical manifold method (NMM), where the interpolation of displacement and pressure can be determined independently in an element for the solution of u–p formulation, is derived based on triangular mesh for the requirement of high accurate calculations from practical applications in the dynamic analysis of saturated porous materials. The matrices of equilibrium equations for the second‐order displacement and the first‐order pressure manifold method are given in detail for program coding. By close comparison with widely used finite element method, the NMM presents good stability for the coupling problems, particularly in the nearly incompressible and undrained cases. Numerical examples are given to illustrate the validity and stability of the manifold element developed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modelling of deformation response and chemo‐mechanical coupling in chalk

A constitutive relation is derived for describing the mechanical response of chalk. The approach is based on a phenomenological framework which employs chemo‐plasticity. The properties of the material are assumed to be affected by the physico‐chemical processes that occur through the interaction between the skeleton and the pore fluid. The underlying mechanism is discussed by invoking a micromechanical analysis. The performance of the framework is illustrated by examining the evolution of mechanical characteristics in the presence of different pore fluids. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Middle-ear stiffness of the bottlenose dolphin tursiops truncatus

Previous research on the cetacean auditory system has consisted mostly of behavioral studies on a limited number of species. Little quantitative physiologic data exists on cetacean hearing. The frequency range of hearing varies greatly across different mammalian species. Differences among species correlate with differences in the middle-ear transfer function. Middle-ear transfer functions depend on the mechanical stiffness of the middle ear and the cochlear input impedance. The purpose of this study was to measure the middle-ear stiffness for the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), a species specialized for underwater high-frequency hearing and echolocation. Middle-ear stiffness was measured with a force probe that applied a known displacement to the stapes and measured the restoring force. The average middle-ear stiffness in ten dolphin ears was 1.37 N//spl mu/m, which is considerably higher than that reported for most terrestrial mammals. The relationship between middle-ear stiffness and low-frequency hearing cutoff in Tursiops was shown to be comparable to that of terrestrial mammals.     

A major sulphur isotope event at c. 510 Ma: a possible anoxia–extinction–volcanism connection during the Early–Middle Cambrian transition?

A new approach to constraining seawater δ³⁴S and sulphate concentration using francolite‐bound sulphate reveals an abrupt increase in δ³⁴S to +50‰ around the Early–Middle Cambrian boundary. Such high δ³⁴S values are best explained by increased rates of pyrite burial due to ocean anoxia coupled with an increased sensitivity of the ocean sulphate reservoir to perturbations due to low sulphate concentrations of 500–700 μgL^?1. We argue that the spread of anoxic waters at this time was partly the result of greenhouse warming related to the eruption of the Kalkarindji Large Igneous Province of northern Australia and that it triggered the collapse of early metazoan reef ecosystems during the latest Early Cambrian. Mass extinctions of the last 260 Myr have all coincided with enhanced volcanic activity, while several are also associated with positive shifts in seawater δ³⁴S. Extending this correlation back in time further implicates volcanically induced climate change as a major determining factor in biosphere evolution. Terra Nova, 18, 257–263, 2006     

Chemical alteration of tephra in the depositional environment: theoretical stability modelling

The study of the chemical stability of vitreous material in aqueous media is well‐established. There has to date been little consideration of the implications of variations in the chemical durability of tephra in Quaternary tephrochronology. Chemical alteration can take the form of cationic leaching from the matrix, or complete destruction of the silica network, either of which could constrain the ability to chemically identify distal tephra. Here we apply established models of vitreous durability to the published chemical analyses of a large number of Icelandic tephras in order to predict their relative durabilities under equivalent conditions. This suggests that some important tephras have relatively poor chemical stability, and that rhyolitic tephras are, in general, more stable than basaltic. We conclude that tephras should be expected to show predictable differential chemical stability in the post‐depositional environment. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Descriptors of impulsive signal levels commonly used in underwateracoustics

Impulsive acoustic waveforms are characterized by a different set of derived quantities than are continuous waveforms. This note presents commonly accepted definitions, units, and symbols used to describe the magnitude of impulsive underwater signals