Resistivity mapping using the VLF-MT method around surface fault ruptures of the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, Japan

Abstract Distinctive fault ruptures, the Nojima Fault and Ogura Fault, appeared along the northwestern coast of Awaji Island at the time of the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake (Kobe earthquake). In order to delineate the shallow resistivity structures around the faults just after they formed, Very Low Frequency Magnetotelluric (VLF-MT) surveys were made at five sites along the Nojima Fault and at one site along the Ogura Fault. Fourteen transects were made at the one site on the Ogura Fault, and another transect covers the area between the two faults. Changes in apparent resistivity or phase, or both, commonly occur when crossing the surface location of one of the faults, except for the northern transects at OGR-0 on the Ogura Fault. Apparent resistivity values of less than 100 Ωm were observed for Tertiary and Quaternary sediments and values larger than 200 Ωm for granitic rocks. The resistivity structures are related to the morphological characteristics of the fault ruptures. Remarkably conductive zones (less than 10 Ωm in apparent resistivity and 30–40 m in width) were found where the surface displacement is distinct and prominent along a single fault plane. If remarkably conductive zones were formed at the time of the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, the results provide a good constraint on the dimensions of a conductive zone near the surface that was made by one earthquake. Alternatively, if characteristic resistivity structures existed prior to the earthquake, the conductive zone was probably formed by some tens of earthquakes in relatively modern times. In this case, this phenomenon is inferred to be a concentration of fracturing in a narrow zone and is associated with the formation of clay minerals, which enhance rock conductivity.     

Outline of the fault zone drilling project by NIED in the vicinity of the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, Japan

Abstract Three boreholes, 1001 m, 1313 m and 1838 m deep, were drilled by the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) in the vicinity of the epicenter of the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake to investigate tectonic and material characteristics near and in active faults. Using these boreholes, an integrated study of the in situ stress, heat flow, and material properties of drill cores and crustal resistivity was conducted. In particular, the Nojima–Hirabayashi borehole was drilled to a depth of 1838 m and directly intersected the Nojima Fault, and three possible fault strands were detected at depths of 1140 m, 1313 m and 1800 m. Major results obtained from this study include the following: (i) shear stress around the fault zone is very small, and the orientation of the maximum horizontal compression is perpendicular to the surface trace of faults; (ii) from the results of a heat flow study, the lower cut-off depth of the aftershocks was estimated to be roughly 300°C; (iii) cores were classified into five types of fault rocks, and an asymmetric distribution pattern of these fault rocks in the fracture zones was identified; (iv) country rock is characterized by a very low permeability and high strength; and (v) resistivity structure can be explained by a model of a fault extending to greater depths but with low resistivity.     

In situ stress measurements in NIED boreholes in and around the fault zone near the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, Japan

Abstract The 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake, M 7.2, occurred along the north-east–south-west trending Rokko–Awaji Fault system. Three boreholes of 1001 m, 1313 m and 1838 m deep were drilled in the vicinity of the epicenter of the earthquake. Each borehole is located at characteristic sites in relation to active faults and the aftershock distribution. In particular, the Nojima–Hirabayashi borehole [Hirabayashi National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) drilling] in Awaji Island was drilled to a depth of 1838 m, approximately 320 m southeast from the surface rupture of the Nojima Fault, and it crosses fracture zones below a depth of 1140 m. In situ stress measurements by the hydraulic fracturing method were conducted in these boreholes within 1.5 years after the earthquake. Measurement results suggest the following: (i) Differential stress values are very small, approximately 10 MPa at a depth of 1000 m at each site; (ii) the orientation of maximum horizontal compression is almost the same in the boreholes, perpendicular to the surface trace of the faults, north-west–south-east; (iii) fault types estimated from the state of stress differ among these sites; and (iv) the differential stress value just beneath the fault fracture zone decreases abruptly to one-half of that above the fault zone in the Hirabayashi NIED drilling. These features support the idea that the shear stress along the Rokko–Awaji Fault system decreased to a low level just after the earthquake.     

Verification of predicted non-linear site response during the 1995 Hyogo-Ken Nanbu earthquake

The linear and non-linear responses of surface soil layers have been predicted through the simultaneous simulation test against the observed ground motions at the six sites in Kobe City during the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake. The total stress analysis method and the effective stress analysis method have been applied for the rough and detailed verification of the predicted non-linear dynamic behavior at the PIS and RKI sites including the liquefaction phenomenon. The shear strain distribution along depth, the ratio of excess pore water pressure to initial effective stress, the liquefaction strength parameters to initial effective stress, and the stress–strain curve during the earthquake at the PIS site have been investigated when the predicted ground motion could simulate successfully the observed acceleration time histories and response spectra in the non-linear range.     

Nonlinear response of surface soil and NTT building due to soil–structure interaction during the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake

The 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake brought about enormous damage to structures in the Hanshin and Awaji areas. In this paper the importance of investigating the relationship between ground motion and structural damage is pointed out.

Strong seismic motion was observed at the NTT (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) Building during this earthquake. The structural damage to this building was relatively slight. In order to evaluate the relationship between ground motion and structural damage, it is necessary to assess the effects of the soil–structure interaction. In this study, the seismic response of the building and of the surface soil were evaluated by means of a nonlinear soil–structure interaction analysis using FEM.

It was found that, the nonlinearity of surface soil near the building had a great effect on the soil–structure interaction, especially the rocking of the building.     

Regional seismicity triggered by the Hyogo-Ken Nanbu, Japan, M =7.2 earthquake on January 17, 1995

The time and spatial feature of the regional seismicity triggered by the Hyogo-Ken Nanbu, Japan, M=7.2 earthquake on January 17,1995, was studied. The concerned region is about several hundred kilometers in length and breadth surrounding the epicenter (33°～37°N, 133°～138°E). It is divided into 16 subregions. The seismicity of these subregions from January of 1976 to June of 1996 has been analyzed. It is showed that,① there were significant seismicity changes in 10 subregions triggered by the Hyogo-Ken Nanbu, Japan, M=7.2 earthquake on January 17, 1995. These changes passed a Z statistic test exceeding 0.95 confidence level and the greatest epicenter distance of these subregions was 280 km;②seismicity changes were triggered within 1～5 days in three subregions near the main shock while in other subregions the seismicity changes were triggered within several ten days after the main shock;③ the greatest triggered event is 5.4, which is about the same size as the greatest aftershock;④the regional stress change resulted from the main shock may be the triggered mechanism of the regional seismicity.     

Response analysis of the Higashi–Kobe Bridge and surrounding soil in the 1995 Hyogoken–Nanbu Earthquake

This paper presents results of observation and analysis of the response of one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world to the Hyogoken–Nanbu (Kobe) Earthquake of 17 January 1995. It is determined that interaction of the foundations of the bridge towers with the supporting soil plays a decisive role in the overall structural behaviour. The key factor governing the changes of the soil properties at this site is pore-water pressure buildup, which results in liquefaction of the saturated surface soil layers under large dynamic loads. Models of the soil and structure are created and initially validated by accurately simulating the system response to a small earthquake. Soil parameters reflecting the pore-water pressure buildup in the strong earthquake are determined by an advanced non-linear effective stress analysis, combining the Ramberg–Osgood model of stress–strain dependence with a pore pressure model based on shear work concept. They are utilized to investigate and simulate the interaction of the foundation and the supporting soil using the program SASSI with the flexible volume substructuring approach. The results show a good agreement with the observations and have useful implications to the scientific and engineering practice. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Simulation analyses of buildings damaged in the 1995 Kobe,Japan, earthquake considering soil–structure interaction

A series of studies was conducted on three buildings of steel reinforced concrete structures with RC shear walls damaged in the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake. These buildings are located in an area where structural damage centred around. Two of these buildings suffered severe damage, while the third was not structurally damaged. Our studies deal with site inspections, including micro-tremor measurement of buildings, the evaluation of input motions, and the response analyses considering soil–structure interaction. The results of simulation analyses of the two severely damaged buildings correspond to their actual damage state. From the response analyses of the one slender building with no structural damage, it was concluded that uplifting is the main reason it did not suffer any structural damage. Through these studies, the importance of soil–structure interaction and effective input motion is fully understood. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

日本1995年1月17日兵库县南部7.2级地震触发的区域地震活动

研究了日本1995年1月17日兵库县南部7.2级大地震触发的区域地震活动时空特征．研究区是主震周围几百公里的区域(33～37N, 133～138E)．研究区被划分为16个子研究区．对16个子研究区自1976年1月～1996年6月地震活动的研究结果表明:① 1995年1月17日兵库县南部7.2级主震触发了10个子区显著的地震变化,速率变化通过置信水平大于0.95的Z-统计检验,这些子区中最远的距主震震中约280 km;② 近震源区子区中的3个,地震活动在主震发生后1～5天内被触发,其它远离震源区的在几十天之后被触发;③ 被触发的区域地震活动最大震级为5.4,与主震诱发的最大余震震级相当;④ 区域地震活动触发的可能机制是主震引起的区域应力变化．      

Influence of subaqueous processes on the construction and accumulation of an aeolian sand sheet

In aeolian sand sheets the interaction between aeolian and subaqueous processes is considered one of the principal factors that controls this depositional environment. To examine the role played by the subaqueous processes on the construction and accumulation of sand sheets, surface deposits and subsurface sedimentary sections of a currently active aeolian sand sheet, located in the Upper Tulum Valley (Argentina), have been examined. On the sand sheet surface, airflows enable the construction of nabkhas, wind‐rippled mantles (flattened accumulations of sand forming wind ripples), megaripples, and small transverse dunes. Subaqueous deposits consist of sandy current ripples covered by muddy laminae. The latter are generated by annual widespread but low‐energy floods that emanate from the nearby mountains in the aftermath of episodes of heavy precipitations. Deposits of subaqueous origin constitute 5% of the accumulated sand sheet thickness. The construction of the sand sheet is controlled by meteorological seasonal changes: the source area, the San Juan river alluvial fan, receives sediment by thaw‐waters in spring–summer; in fall–winter, when the water table lowers in the alluvial fan, the sediment is available for aeolian transport and construction of the sand sheet area. The flood events play an important role in enabling sand sheet accumulation: the muddy laminae serve to protect the underlying deposits from aeolian winnowing. Incipient cement of gypsum on the sand and vegetation cover acts as an additional stabilizing agent that promotes accumulation. Episodic and alternating events of erosion and sedimentation are considered the main reason for the absence of soils and palaeosols. Results from this study have enabled the development of a generic model with which to account for: (i) the influence of contemporaneous subaqueous processes on the construction and accumulation in recent and ancient sand sheets; and (ii) the absence of developed soils in this unstable topographic surface. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ground‐shaking mapping for a scenario earthquake considering effects of geological conditions: a case study for the 1995 Hyogo‐ken Nanbu,Japan earthquake

In order to examine the applicability of ground‐shaking mapping techniques to a near‐field earthquake, a peak ground velocity map of the 1995 Hyogo‐ken Nanbu, Japan earthquake computed from seismic zoning methods that consider the effects of geological conditions is compared with the actual observed intensity map. When computing the ground‐shaking map, the site amplification at each site is calculated in terms of the average shear‐wave velocity of the ground estimated from the corresponding geomorphological conditions. This map shows a relatively good agreement with the observed intensity map. However, the computations provide smaller values for certain disastrous areas of the earthquake, where the effects on ground motion of a deep, irregular underground structure have been reported. The effect of such structures on site response is examined implementing 2D FEM analyses, thereby being also incorporated into the method. Results considering the effect of the irregular underground structure show better agreement with the observed intensity map. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

日本兵库县南部地震灾害及其启示

本文叙述了日本兵库县南部地震的灾害特点，分析了灾害严重的原因及地震灾害以对政治、社会、经济、科学研究的影响，总结了应汲取的经验和教训。     

Electrokinetic phenomena associated with a water injection experiment at the Nojima fault on Awaji Island, Japan

Abstract Self-potential variations were measured to estimate the magnitude of electrokinetic and hydrological parameters (zeta potential and permeability) of the Nojima Fault zone in Awaji, Japan. The study observed self-potential variations that seemed to be associated with water flow from the injection well to the fracture zone, which were induced by turning the injection on and off. Amplitudes of the variations were a few to 0.03 V across 320–450 m dipoles. These variations can be explained well with an electrokinetic model. The quantity k/ζ (permeability/zeta potential) is in the range 1.6 × 10⁻¹³− 5.4 × 10⁻¹³ m²/V. Permeability of the Nojima fault zone can be estimated as approximately 10⁻¹⁶–10⁻¹⁵ m² on the assumption that the zeta potential is in the range –0.01 to –0.001 V.     

利用重力资料检测日本9.0级地震激发的地球自由振荡

利用格尔木基准地震台重力观测资料,检测到2011年3月11日日本东海岸9.0级特大地震激发0S0 ～0S40之间的球型自由振荡,其中有0S0、0S13、0S22、0S26、0S30共5个振型的观测频率值与理论频率值偏差近似为0.同时发现0S2、0S3振型有明显的谱线分裂现象,但是0S32、0S37振型未与周围噪音区分开,观测效果不明显.整体平均偏差约为0.10％,观测频率值与理论频率值有很好的相符,这不但说明了PREM模型理论的正确性,也说明了格尔木基准地震台重力资料质量的优良,研究结果对了解地球内部结构有一定的帮助.     

Characteristic of the vertical seismic waves associated with the 1995 Hyogo‐ken Nanbu (Kobe), Japan earthquake estimated from the failure of the Daikai Underground Station

The dynamic behaviour of underground structures built by cut‐and‐cover methods is discussed. A simple model analysis shows that a column supporting the overburden at midspan (central column) can resonate upon incidence of an elastic wave of a specific frequency. The analytical results indicate that not only the size and material properties of the column, but also the static load acting on the column (overburden) is a decisive factor that influences the resonant frequency. Based on the results obtained by the analysis, the mechanism of the failure at the Daikai Underground Station in Kobe caused by the 1995 Hyogo‐ken Nanbu, Japan, earthquake is investigated. It is shown that the wave‐induced damage to underground structures can concentrate on the sections with specific overburden, and from the induced damage, it is possible to estimate the frequency characteristics of the associated seismic waves. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Alteration and mass transfer inferred from the Hirabayashi GSJ drill penetrating the Nojima Fault, Japan

Abstract Mineralogical and geochemical studies on the fault rocks from the Nojima–Hirabayashi borehole, south-west Japan, are performed to clarify the alteration and mass transfer in the Nojima Fault Zone at shallow depths. A complete sequence from the hornblende–biotite granodiorite protolith to the fault core can be observed without serious disorganization by surface weathering. The parts deeper than 426.2 m are in the fault zone where rocks have suffered fault-related deformation and alteration. Characteristic alteration minerals in the fault zone are smectite, zeolites (laumontite, stilbite), and carbonate minerals (calcite and siderite). It is inferred that laumontite veins formed at temperatures higher than approximately 100°C during the fault activity. A reverse component in the movement of the Nojima Fault influences the distribution of zeolites. Zeolite is the main sealing mineral in relatively deep parts, whereas carbonate is the main sealing mineral at shallower depths. Several shear zones are recognized in the fault zone. Intense alteration is localized in the gouge zones. Rock chemistry changes in a different manner between different shear zones in the fault zone. The main shear zone (MSZ), which corresponds to the core of the Nojima Fault, shows increased concentration of most elements except Si, Al, Na, and K. However, a lower shear zone (LSZ-2), which is characterized by intense alteration rather than cataclastic deformation, shows a decreased concentration of most elements including Ti and Zr. A simple volume change analysis based on Ti and Zr immobility, commonly used to examine the changes in fault rock chemistry, cannot account fully for the different behaviors of Ti and Zr among the two gouge zones.     

Quaternary vertical offset and average slip rate of the Nojima Fault on Awaji Island, Japan

Abstract Drilling was carried out to penetrate the Nojima Fault where the surface rupture occurred associated with the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake. Two 500 m boreholes were successfully drilled through the fault zone at a depth of 389.4 m. The drilling data show that the relative uplift of the south-east side of the Nojima Fault (south-west segment) was approximately 230 m. The Nojima branch fault, which branches from the Nojima Fault, is inferred to extend to the Asano Fault. From the structural contour map of basal unconformity of the Kobe Group, the vertical component of displacement of the Nojima branch–Asano Fault is estimated to be 260–310 m. Because the vertical component of displacement on the Nojima Fault of the north-east segment is a total of those of the Nojima Fault of the south-west segment and of the Nojima branch–Asano Fault, it is estimated to total to 490–540 m. From this, the average vertical component of the slip rate on the Nojima Fault is estimated to be 0.4–0.45 m/10³ years for the past 1.2 million years.     

日本9.0级地震前后华北形变场变化特征与地震趋势分析

本文分析了华北主要断裂带基于2011年日本9.0级地震同震位移场的应变变化, 结合华北地区近几年形变异常分析日本9.0级地震前后华北地区形变场的变化特征, 分析了日本9.0级地震对华北地区的影响以及未来值得关注的地区。 日本9.0级地震的发生使得华北地区EW向主压应变有所释放, 不同地区的同震响应存在差异, 部分趋势性变化在日本9.0级地震后有所恢复, 目前郯庐带中南段及附近区域的挤压应变背景和断层活动水平增强值得关注。     

Crack-filling clays and weathered cracks in the DPRI 1800 m core near the Nojima Fault, Japan: Evidence for deep surface-water circulation near an active fault

Abstract Crack-filling clays and weathered cracks were observed in the Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University (DPRI) 1800 m cores drilled from the Nojima Fault Zone, which was activated during the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake (Kobe earthquake). The crack-filling clays consist mainly of unconsolidated fine-grained materials that fill opening cracks with no shear textures. Most of the cracks observed in the DPRI 1800 m cores are yellow-brown to brown in color due to weathering. Powder X-ray diffraction analyses show that the crack-filling clays are composed mainly of clay minerals and carbonates such as siderite and calcite. Given that the top of the borehole is approximately 45 m above sea level, most of the core is far below the stable groundwater table. Hence, it is suggested that the crack-filling clays and weathered cracks in the cores taken at depths of 1800 m were formed by the flow of surface water down to the deep fractured zone of the Nojima Fault Zone during seismic faulting.     

Earthquake swarms preceding the 2000 eruption of Miyakejima volcano, Japan

The first sign of magma accumulating beneath Miyakejima, an island volcano in the northern Izu islands, Japan, came at around 18:00 on 26 June 2000, when a swarm of earthquakes was detected by a volcano seismic network on the island. Earthquakes occurred initially beneath the southwest flank near the summit and gradually migrated west of the island, where a submarine eruption occurred the next morning. Earthquakes then migrated further to the northwest between Miyakejima and Kozushima, another volcanic island and developed to the most intense earthquake swarm ever observed in and around Japanese archipelago. To better image how the initial magma intrusion occurred, we relocated hypocenters by using a station-correction method and a double-difference method. The relocated epicenters are generally concentrated near the upper bound of dyke intrusions inferred from geodetic studies throughout the initial stages of the 2000 eruption at Miyakejima from 26 to 27 June 2000. As for seismic activity westward off Miyakejima in the morning on 27 June, hypocenters from both a nationwide seismic network that were relocated by the double-difference method, and those from the volcano seismic network relocated by the station-correction method, formed a very shallow cluster that ascended slowly with time as it propagated northwestward from Miyakejima. This suggests that the dykes have both a radial and upward component of movement.Editorial responsibility: S. Nakada, T. Druitt