Revised age of proximal deposits in the Zagros foreland basin and implications for Cenozoic evolution of the High Zagros

The regionally extensive, coarse-grained Bakhtiyari Formation represents the youngest synorogenic fill in the Zagros foreland basin of Iran. The Bakhtiyari is present throughout the Zagros fold-thrust belt and consists of conglomerate with subordinate sandstone and marl. The formation is up to 3000 m thick and was deposited in foredeep and wedge-top depocenters flanked by fold-thrust structures. Although the Bakhtiyari concordantly overlies Miocene deposits in foreland regions, an angular unconformity above tilted Paleozoic to Miocene rocks is expressed in the hinterland (High Zagros).

The Bakhtiyari Formation has been widely considered to be a regional sheet of Pliocene–Pleistocene conglomerate deposited during and after major late Miocene–Pliocene shortening. It is further believed that rapid fold growth and Bakhtiyari deposition commenced simultaneously across the fold-thrust belt, with limited migration from hinterland (NE) to foreland (SW). Thus, the Bakhtiyari is generally interpreted as an unmistakable time indicator for shortening and surface uplift across the Zagros. However, new structural and stratigraphic data show that the most-proximal Bakhtiyari exposures, in the High Zagros south of Shahr-kord, were deposited during the early Miocene and probably Oligocene. In this locality, a coarse-grained Bakhtiyari succession several hundred meters thick contains gray marl, limestone, and sandstone with diagnostic marine pelecypod, gastropod, coral, and coralline algae fossils. Foraminiferal and palynological species indicate deposition during early Miocene time. However, the lower Miocene marine interval lies in angular unconformity above ~ 150 m of Bakhtiyari conglomerate that, in turn, unconformably caps an Oligocene marine sequence. These relationships attest to syndepositional deformation and suggest that the oldest Bakhtiyari conglomerate could be Oligocene in age.

The new age information constrains the timing of initial foreland-basin development and proximal Bakhtiyari deposition in the Zagros hinterland. These findings reveal that structural evolution of the High Zagros was underway by early Miocene and probably Oligocene time, earlier than commonly envisioned. The age of the Bakhtiyari Formation in the High Zagros contrasts significantly with the Pliocene–Quaternary Bakhtiyari deposits near the modern deformation front, suggesting a long-term (> 20 Myr) advance of deformation toward the foreland.     

Detrital zircon provenance of Neoproterozoic to Cenozoic deposits in Iran: Implications for chronostratigraphy and collisional tectonics

Ion-microprobe U–Pb analyses of 589 detrital zircon grains from 14 sandstones of the Alborz mountains, Zagros mountains, and central Iranian plateau provide an initial framework for understanding the Neoproterozoic to Cenozoic provenance history of Iran. The results place improved chronological constraints on the age of earliest sediment accumulation during Neoproterozoic–Cambrian time, the timing of the Mesozoic Iran–Eurasia collision and Cenozoic Arabia–Eurasia collision, and the contribution of various sediment sources of Gondwanan and Eurasian affinity during opening and closure of the Paleotethys and Neotethys oceans. The zircon age populations suggest that deposition of the extensive ~ 1 km-thick clastic sequence at the base of the cover succession commenced in latest Neoproterozoic and terminated by Middle Cambrian time. Comparison of the geochronological data with detrital zircon ages for northern Gondwana reveals that sediment principally derived from the East African orogen covered a vast region encompassing northern Africa and the Middle East. Although most previous studies propose a simple passive-margin setting for Paleozoic Iran, detrital zircon age spectra indicate Late Devonian–Early Permian and Cambrian–Ordovician magmatism. These data suggest that Iran was affiliated with Eurasian magmatic arcs or that rift-related magmatic activity during opening of Paleotethys and Neotethys was more pronounced than thought along the northern Gondwanan passive-margin. For a Triassic–Jurassic clastic overlap assemblage (Shemshak Formation) in the Alborz mountains, U–Pb zircon ages provide chronostratigraphic age control requiring collision of Iran with Eurasia by late Carnian–early Norian time (220–210 Ma). Finally, Cenozoic strata yield abundant zircons of Eocene age, consistent with derivation from arc magmatic rocks related to late-stage subduction and/or breakoff of the Neotethys slab. Together with the timing of foreland basin sedimentation in the Zagros, these detrital zircon ages help bracket the onset of the Arabia–Eurasia collision in Iran between middle Eocene and late Oligocene time.     

Power spectrum of geomagneticK p-index detected at Misallat magnetic station

TheK _p-indices measured at Misallat station [ø = 29°45 N; = 30°54 E] during the period 1958–1989, have been compared with the data of two geomagnetic stations; one of them has similar longitude as Misallat and the second has almost similar latitude. The spectra of daily and hourly data of the three stations are compared together to define the latitude and longitude-effects on the detected periodicities. Daily periodicities ofK _p-index activities at the values 32.7, 21.2, 12.9, 11.6 and 9.2 days have been obtained to be common in the spectra of the three stations. The existence of 5-days periodicity in these stations has also been detected.     

Comparison of univariate and multivariate geographically weighted regression for estimating air temperature over Iran

Station recording air temperature (T_a) has limited spatial coverage, especially in unpopulated areas. Since temperature can change greatly both spatially and temporally, stations data are often inadequate for meteorology and subsequently climatology studies. Time series of moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) land surface temperature (T_s) and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) products, combined with digital elevation model (DEM), albedo from Era-Interim and meteorological data from 2006 to 2015, were used to estimate daily mean air temperature over Iran. Geographically weighted regression was applied to compare univariate and multivariate model accuracy. In the first model, which only interfered with land surface temperature (LST), the results indicate a weak performance with coefficient of determination up to 91% and RMSE of 1.08 to 2.9 °C. The mean accuracy of a four-variable model (which used LST, elevation, slope, NDVI) slightly increased (6.6% of the univariate model accuracy) when compared to univariate model. RMSE dropped by 19% of the first model. By addition albedo in the third model, the coefficient of determination increased significantly. This increase was 32% of the univariate model and 23.75% of the 4-variable model accuracy. The statistical comparison between the three models revealed that there is significant improvement in air estimation by applying the geographically weighted regression (GWR) method with interfering LST, NDVI, elevation, slope, and albedo with mean absolute RMSE of 0.62 °C and mean absolute R² of 0.99. In order to better illustrate the third model, t values were spatially mapped at 0.05 level.     

Performance evaluation of correction coefficients to optimize sediment rating curves on the basis of the Karkheh dam reservoir hydrography,west Iran

The prediction of useful lifetime of a dam is estimated through accurate estimate of river sediments which mostly depend on sediment rating curve. Over the past decades, various methods have been developed by investigators. With respect to the importance of this issue, in the present study, the best discharge-sediment relationship for Jelogir hydrometric station located at the upstream of Karkheh reservoir dam is presented. In the first step, sediment rating curves in annual, seasonal, monthly, wet and dry, and middle of the classes linear ways and applying 3 correction coefficients that include Smearing, FAO, and QMILE were obtained; then, their performance was evaluated. Comparison of these results with data obtained from hydrographical operation of Karkheh dam reservoir showed that the optimal equation of discharge-sediment at this hydrometric station follows annual linear sediment rating curve with QMILE correction coefficient. According to the results, annual method has estimated sediment volume less than the actual volume, about 98.7% of the actual sediment, while other evaluated methods have showed sediment volume more than the actual one, and among correction coefficients, the application of QMILE correction coefficient is more reasonable than other coefficients.     

Precipitation rate climatology related to different cloud types using satellite imagery over Iran

Cloud types have a substantial influence on precipitation. This paper presents a study of the monthly variations of daytime different cloud types over Iran using data collected from Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) aboard Terra during 2001–2015, MODIS aboard Aqua during 2002–2015, International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) H-series cloud type data during 2001–2009 and precipitation rate associated with different cloud types using Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite products during 2001–2009. Different cloud types were determined using MODIS cloud optical thickness and cloud top pressure data based on ISCCP algorithm. The results showed that stratocumulus and cumulus clouds have maximum occurrence frequency over marine areas especially southern seas. The maximum frequency of nimbostratus and deep convective occurrence occurred over mountainous regions particularly at the time of Aqua overpass and cirrus and cirrostratus are observed over southeast of Iran during warm months due to monsoon system. Altostratus cloud is extended in each month except January, at the time of Terra overpass while nimbostratus is seen at the time of Aqua overpass during warm months in the study area. Cumulus and altocumulus clouds have shown remarkable frequency in all months especially over marine regions during warm and fall months. The higher value of precipitation rate is related to altostratus with a rate approximately 7 mm/h at the time of Terra overpass during April. Altostratus has the maximum recorded precipitation rate except in Nov., Dec., Sep., and Jan. at the time of Terra overpass, whereas the maximum precipitation rate is linked to nimbostratus cloud activity (up to 5 mm/h) except for March, April, and Sep. at the time of Aqua overpass. Deep convective (up to 1.32 mm/h), cirrostratus (up to 1.11 mm/h), and cirrus (0.02 mm/h) are observed only in warm months. The results were compared with ISCCP cloud types so that precipitation rate classified from low to high and Spearman rank correlation was calculated. The results showed good agreement between these two cloud type data; however, there were few notable difference between them.     

Structural Setting and Kinematic Analysis of the Halaban Region,Eastern Arabian Shield,Saudi Arabia

The vorticity analysis technique was applied to measure the different lithological units,such as schist,metagranite and metavolcano-sedimentary rocks,which are present in the Halaban region.This work aims to interpret the relationship between the different lithologies and the tectonic setting,in order to elucidate the nature of kinematic analysis in the Halaban region.The kinematic analyses were applied to feldspar porphyroclasts,quartz and hornblende for twentysix samples.The kinematic vorticity number (W_m) for deformed rocks in the study area ranged from～0.6 to 0.9.The direction of the long axes for finite strain data (X axes) revealed a WNW trend with shallow dipping.The direction of the short axes for finite strain data (Z axes) were represented by vertical with associated horizontal foliation.The results of the kinematic vorticity and strain analyses are characterized by simple shear with different degrees of deformation in the Halaban region.Furthermore,our finite strain data shows no significant volume change during deformation.The subhorizontal foliation was synchronized with thrusting and deformation.Furthermore,throughout the overlying nappes,the same attitudes of tectonic contacts are observable,the nappes in the orogens being formed from simple shear deformation.     

Plain strain soil–structure interaction model for a building supported by a circular foundation embedded in a poroelastic half-space

A simple theoretical model for soil–structure interaction in water saturated poroelastic soils is presented, developed to explore if the apparent building–foundation–soil system frequency changes due to water saturation. The model consists of a shear wall supported by a rigid circular foundation embedded in a homogenous, isotropic poroelastic half-space, fully saturated by a compressible and inviscid fluid, and excited by in-plane wave motion. The motion in the soil is governed by Biot's theory of wave propagation in fluid saturated porous media. Helmholtz decomposition and wave function expansion of the two P-wave and the S-wave potentials is used to represent the motion in the soil. The boundary conditions along the contact surface between the soil and the foundation are perfect bond (i.e. welded contact) for the skeleton, and either drained or undrained hydraulic condition for the fluid (i.e. pervious or impervious foundation). For the purpose of this exploratory analysis, the zero stress condition at the free surface is relaxed in the derivation of the foundation stiffness matrix, which enables a closed form solution. The implications of this assumption are discussed, based on published comparisons for the elastic case. Also, a closed form representation is derived for the foundation driving forces for incident plane (fast) P-wave or SV wave. Numerical results and comparison with the full-scale measurements are presented in the companion paper, published in this issue.     

Effects of rainfall on soil–structure system frequency: Examples based on poroelasticity and a comparison with full-scale measurements

In this paper, a simple two-dimensional soil–structure interaction model, based on Biot's theory of wave propagation in fluid saturated porous media, is used to explain the observed increase of the apparent frequencies of Millikan library in Pasadena, California, during heavy rainfall and recovery within days after the rain. These variations have been measured for small amplitude response (to microtremors and wind excitation), for which Biot's linear theory is valid. The postulated hypothesis is that the observed increases in frequency are due to the water saturation of the soil. The theoretical model used to explore this hypothesis consists of a shear wall supported by a circular foundation embedded in a poroelastic half-space. This rigid foundation model may be appropriate only for the NS response of Millikan library. This paper presents results for the foundation stiffness, and for the system response for model parameters similar to those for Millikan library (located on alluvium with shear wave velocity of about 300 m/s). The foundation impedance matrix, foundation input motion and system response are compared for dry and fully saturated half-space, with permeable and impermeable foundation. The results show that for embedded foundations, the effects of saturation on the horizontal foundation stiffness are as significant as for the vertical stiffness, contrary to what has been known for surface foundations investigated by other authors. Further, the results suggest a 1–2% increase in system frequency of the first two modes of vibration, depending on the drainage condition along the foundation–soil interface. Such increases agree qualitatively with the observations.     

Mineral potential mapping for rare earth elements mineralization with AHP method in the Kerman-Kashmar Tectonic Zone,Central Iran

One of the major strengths of a GIS is the ability to integrate and combine multiple layers of geoscience data for producing mineral potential maps showing favorable areas for mineral exploration. Once the data is prepared properly, the GIS, jointly with other statistical and geostatistical software packages, can be used to manipulate and visualize the data in order to produce a mineral prospectivity map. Many spatial modeling techniques can be employed to produce mineral potential maps. This paper demonstrates a technique to define favorable areas for REE mineralization with AHP technique using geological, geochemical, geophysical, alteration and faults density spatial data in the Kerman-Kashmar Tectonic Zone of central Iran. The AHP is a powerful and flexible multi-criteria decision-making tool for dealing with complex problems where both qualitative and quantitative aspects need to be considered. This approach is knowledgedriven method and can be applied in other areas for conventional use in mineral exploration.