我国水价的变化过程及其区域特征的研究

随着资源危机的加剧，水价及其相关问题受到了广泛的关注，回顾了建国以来我国水价及其相关水利政策的演变，探讨了我国水价特征的空间分布，地区间的差异及其与社会经济，水资源与水环境之间的关系，研究了20世纪90年代后期以来我国水价改革，分析了我国水价的现状和发展前景，提出了近期水价增长的理论依据，讨论了不价承受能力和调水的水价等相关问题。     

Research progress of socio-economic water cycle in China

China has made great progress in the study of socio-economic water cycle. She has completed national water resources appraisement and medium to long-term water supply planning. She has been engaging in study on water-deficient regions in North China and Northwest China for about half a century. For solving water shortage problem in northern China, she has put forward the famous South-to-North Water Transferring Projects, which has been set as one of the four biggest national projects in the Tenth Five-Year-Plan period although there are still debates. For promoting water use efficiency, China has been reforming her water management system, including water right system and water price system. There has already been a case of water right purchase. China has also done a lot of research on the interaction between human activity, water and ecosystem. For meeting the need of sustainability and coordinating water resources development and environmental protection, the study of ecological water requirement became very hot in recent years. There are three focuses of socio-economic water cycle study now in China: water transfer projects from the south to the north, water resources management and ecological water requirement.     

论水权的性质及构成

水权的客体、性质和权能结构可从其自然属性、经济属性、法律属性三方面进行分析。水权是自然资源产权，水权的客体是水资源而非水产品，即生态用水之外的部分水资源。水权是具有公权色彩的私权，是符合物权属性基本前提下的准物权。我国水资源为国家所有，在水权权系构成中，水资源所有权是第一位的权利。水资源所有权的派生权利如占有权、使用权、部分收益权、部分处分权等可与所有权相分离并进行流转，从而形成水权市场和水权交易制度。在我国，水资源使用权即是取水权，根据取水方式的差异，包括汲水权、引水权、蓄水权等；根据水资源使用方式的差异，则包括灌溉权、经营权、饮用权等。本文认为，水域(水面)使用权、排水权、水资源分配权等不属于水权的范畴。     

Research progress of socio-economic water cycle in China

China has made great progress in the study of socio-economic water cycle. She has completed national water resources appraisement and medium to long-term water supply planning. She has been engaging in study on water-deficient regions in North China and Northwest China for about half a century. For solving water shortage problem in northern China, she has put forward the famous South-to-North Water Transferring Projects, which has been set as one of the four biggest national projects in the Tenth Five-Year-Plan period although there are still debates. For promoting water use efficiency, China has been reforming her water management system, including water right system and water price system. There has already been a case of water right purchase. China has also done a lot of research on the interaction between human activity, water and ecosystem. For meeting the need of sustainability and coordinating water resources development and environmental protection, the study of ecological water requirement became very hot in recent years. There are three focuses of socio-economic water cycle study now in China: water transfer projects from the south to the north, water resources management and ecological water requirement.     

基于虚拟水消费的水足迹计算——以大连市为例

水足迹是反映水资源实际消费的新概念．以虚拟水消费为基础的水足迹能更真实地衡量社会经济系统对水资源的消费利用状况。作者引人水足迹的概念及计算方法，在基于虚拟水计算的基础上对大连市2003年水足迹进行了计算，通过定量地分析大连市水资源的利用现状、依赖程度及存在问题，为科学利用有限的水资源提供有益的决策依据；同时通过虚拟水战略分析，提出了解决水资源短缺问题的新思路。     

以色列水足迹及其对我国西北干旱区的启示

水足迹作为一个综合的指标,揭示了一个国家或地区的总需水量,可以粗略地衡量人类消费对自然水环境的影响,为干旱缺水地区水资源合理开发利用、高效配置提供了一个新视角。本文分析了以色列1999年的人均水足迹、总水足迹及其组成,其总水足迹为8．58×10^8m^3m^3,是可更新水资源的4．77倍;人均水足迹为1391m^3／人／年,是人均水资源占有量的3．76倍,并探讨了以色列水足迹对我国西北干旱区的启示。     

用水计划与水价对华北工业企业用水的影响——以河北省为例

工业是仅次于农业的用水大户,其用水的规模、方式和效率直接影响着华北地区总的用水需求。在对华北地区工业企业问卷调查的基础上,就影响企业效益的主要因素、用水计划对企业用水的影响、水费占总成本的比例、企业对目前和未来水价的看法、企业对提高水价的意愿、企业应对水价上涨的策略、企业对节水的态度和采取的节水措施等问题进行了分析。结果表明:用水计划对限制企业的用水有明显的作用;提高水价也有明显促进企业节水的效应。并选择了两个万元产值耗水量差别大的典型企业,对其13年来的用水情况进行了分析,验证了用水计划和水价对企业用水行为的影响效果。     

The evolution and enlightenment of water resources accounting from accounts to balance sheet

The Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China has proposed an important national strategic decision:to explore and establish the balance sheet of natural resources,to implement leaders' of-office auditing system about natural resources assets.Water is one of the most essential nature resources of human beings;water resources accounting,as an important water resources management tool,is an essential part of compiling the natural resources balance sheet.In this paper,we provide a summary of the historic evolution of water resources accounting and analyze its application in some typical countries.Although water resources accounting and water resources balance sheet reflect different implications and focus,both require water resources accounts as the basis in system establishment.     

西藏地区天然水的水化学性质和元素特征

为了调查西藏的水质和水资源特色,2013 年在西藏拉萨、那曲地区、阿里地区、日喀则地区36 个县乡镇采集了60 个水样（地下水35 个,地表水22 个,温泉水3 个）,对其水化学性质与元素含量进行分析测定,并与周边的青海西南部、新疆南部、四川西部与西藏东部等地水的水化学类型进行了对比,讨论了不同地区内水化学类型的差异。总体上看西藏大部地区水质较好,能够满足国家生活饮用水卫生标准。水样pH 处于6.75~8.21 范围内;总溶解性固体（TDS） 均值为225.54 mg/L;阿里地区水中砷元素含量超标（超过10 μg/L）,双湖地区水中氟含量超标（超过1 mg/L）;水化学类型主要为Ca-HCO₃型;由南向北水中阳离子由以Ca²⁺ 为主逐渐过渡到以Na⁺ 为主,阴离子HCO₃^- 逐渐减少,Cl^- 与SO₄^2- 逐渐增多;河流水与冰川融水的成因类型主要为岩石风化型,地下水成因受多种因素控制;构造分区控制水中主要元素进而影响水化学类型。     

虚拟水的理论方法及在甘肃省的应用

水资源短缺问题是中国西北地区面临的突出问题,解决西北地区水资源短缺问题必须要有新的思路。虚拟水是水问题与水资源安全研究中的新概念,是指生产商品和服务所需要的水资源数量。虚拟水战略是指缺水国家或地区通过贸易的方式从富水国家或地区购买水密集型产品(尤其是粮食) 来获得本地水和粮食的安全,将水短缺问题的解决途径扩展到社会经济系统,人口—粮食—贸易之间的连接关系是虚拟水战略分析的主线。作者引入了虚拟水的概念,并简要介绍了当前国际研究的进展情况和计算方法。结合甘肃省的实际情况,初步计算得到2000年甘肃省生产产品中和城乡居民消费的产品中的虚拟水含量分别为222.02×108m3和183.75×108m3,分别是实体水资源利用量的1.8和1.5倍。分析了虚拟水战略的政策影响和虚拟水战略的优缺点,指出了在虚拟水理论与应用方面需要焏待开展的研究内容。     

甘肃省小麦水分平衡及其时空分布模式

以县域为基本单元,采用农田水量平衡模型,对甘肃省1961至2001年冬、春小麦自然降水条件下的水分平衡进行了逐月计算,并对其时空分布模式进行了研究。结果表明:甘肃省多年平均冬小麦需水量为464.47mm,亏水量144.42mm,盈水量3.75mm;春小麦需水量为443.83mm,亏水量262.87mm,盈水量0.00mm。降水不能满足小麦生长的需求,亏水是其水分平衡的首要特征;5～6月是甘肃省冬、春小麦的亏水高峰期,且冬小麦盈亏水量的稳定性低于春小麦;全生育期冬小麦以中度水分亏缺频率为最高,春小麦则以重度为主;甘肃省冬、春小麦的需水量、亏水量与水分亏缺率均呈由东南向西北递增的趋势。     

The Analysis of Water Footprint of Production and Water Stress in China

Water footprint of production can be used to identify pressure on national or regional water resources generated by production activities. Water stress is defined as the ratio of water use (the difference between a regional water footprint of production and a green water footprint) to renewable water resources available in a country or region. Water stress can be used to identify pressure on national or regional water resources generated by production activities. This paper estimates the water footprint of production and the water stress in China during the years 1985-2009. The result shows that China’s water footprint of production increased from 781.58 × 10⁹ m³ in 1985 to 1109.76 × 10⁹ m³ in 2009. Mega-cities and regions with less agriculture production due to local climatic conditions (Tibet and Qinghai) had lower water footprint of production, while the provinces (Henan, Shandong) with higher agriculture production had higher footprint. Provinces with severe water stress increased from 6 in 1985 to 9 in 2009. High to severe water stress exists mainly in mega-cities and agricultural areas located in the downstream areas of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River in North and Central China. The outlook for water resources pressure in China is not optimistic, with areas of stress expanding from northern to southern of China.     

新疆2012年水足迹计算与分析

运用投入产出分析法计算并分析新疆2012年的水足迹,结果表明：新疆2012年总水足迹为292.52×10⁸m³,人均水足迹为1283.94m³。总水足迹中虚拟水消费量为279.68×10⁸m³,其中72.20%用于居民和政府消费,27.80%用于资本形成。水足迹自给率为80.56%,对内部水足迹依赖度较高;水资源经济效益值为25.66元·5m^-3,水足迹价值兑换比例为3.31,水资源经济效益值较低;水资源压力指数为0.68,60%以上的水资源压力来源于虚拟水流出。实现新疆水资源可持续利用可通过优化产业结构、调整居民虚拟水消费结构以降低水足迹,优化贸易结构以发挥虚拟水贸易对平衡水资源供需矛盾、提高水资源利用效率的调节功能。     

社会经济系统水循环研究进展

水循环包括自然水循环和社会经济水循环两个方面。社会经济系统水循环指社会经济系统对水资源的开发利用及各种人类活动对水循环的影响。对目前国际国内关于社会经济水循环关注的主要问题 (水资源安全、水资源社会经济研究、人类活动对水循环的影响、水环境、水资源可持续管理和综合管理) 及其进展进行了评述。水资源安全的主要对策已由增加供给转变为水资源需求管理。增加社会参与和明晰水权是水资源管理体制改革的方向。水价在水资源管理中的重要作用得到越来越多的重视。水资源可持续管理和综合管理正逐步落实。水资源需求管理机制、水权水价等水资源管理制度设计、作为可持续水资源管理基础的生态需水问题和环境变化对水资源的影响,将是未来社会经济系统水循环研究的焦点。     

水空间管理与水资源的可持续性

水资源的赋存需要特定的空间结构,水空间对于维系水资源系统的完整性、保障水循环和水资源的可再生能力、实现水资源的可持续开发利用具有重要作用。 由于人类活动极大地干扰了地球表层系统,水空间结构遭到严重破坏,破坏了水资源支撑社会经济发展的可持续能力。水空间的丧失极大地改变了流域尺度上的水循环过程,加剧了水资源的负均衡性。科学规划水空间,建立水资源安全的水空间格局和预警系统,以实现水资源的可持续性利用,保障资源、环境与社会经济协调发展。     

土库曼斯坦水资源现状及利用问题

土库曼斯坦地处亚洲中部干旱区西南部,沙漠广布,水资源短缺,是阿姆河等跨界河流水资源的主要消耗区,水资源利用问题及矛盾十分突出。开展该国水资源及其开发利用研究,对研究跨界河流及极度干旱区水资源可持续利用具有重要的借鉴意义。土库曼斯坦是中亚水资源总量最少的国家,河流多数跨界,出入境水量约为233×10⁸ m³,可利用水量远大于国内水资源总量,其中地表水资源总量约为9.39×10⁸ m³,地下水可开采量为5.69×10⁸ m³,而该国最主要的水利工程——卡拉库姆运河调来了阿姆河近1/3的水量,增加了灌溉面积。在水资源利用中,实际用水量的90%以上被用于农业灌溉,工业用水占7%左右,城市生活用水占2%。土库曼斯坦水资源主要靠调水工程和灌渠从界外引入,由于缺乏技术和资金支持,基础设施老化、管理混乱、水资源纷争复杂多变等水资源利用问题十分突出。在全球变化背景下,土库曼斯坦应加强在水资源的合理配置与高效利用、水资源国际合作等方面的工作,合理开发利用水资源。     

京津冀城市群虚拟水贸易的近远程分析

虚拟水贸易能重新分配区域间的水资源。在京津冀协同发展的背景下,厘清京津冀城市群与外部的虚拟水贸易及城市群内部的虚拟水流动,有助于深入理解该地区的水资源供需现状及问题,为制定虚拟水贸易相关策略、实现区域水资源优化配置、保障区域水资源安全提供决策支持。本文基于2010年全国区域间投入产出表,测算了京津冀城市群各省（市）水足迹及与全国各省域单元的虚拟水贸易量。从近远程视角定量评估城市群地区对内、外部水资源的依赖程度,并分析虚拟水贸易的距离特征。研究发现：① 京津冀城市群各省（市）各部门用水系数显现出差异性,农业部门用水强度最高,直接用水与完全用水系数分别超过300 m ³/万元和400 m ³/万元;② 京津冀城市群内部各省（市）人均消费水足迹差异大,北京、天津、河北的人均水足迹分别为405 m ³、565 m ³、191 m ³;③ 京津冀城市群的消费水足迹遍布全国各省域单元,近程水足迹与远程水足迹分别为91.4亿m ³、198.5亿m ³,其中,近程水足迹主要来源于本省（市）,西部地区对远程水足迹的贡献最大;④ 京津冀城市群的虚拟水输入总体偏向来源于距离较近的省域单元,北京、天津、河北水足迹距离来源地的平均距离分别为1049 km、1297 km、688 km;⑤ 北京和天津为虚拟水贸易的净流入区,对外部水资源的依赖性强;河北为虚拟水贸易的净流出区,为京津冀城市群及其他地区供给水资源,虚拟水净流出进一步加剧了河北的水资源短缺。未来,受人口增长、经济发展等因素影响,京津冀城市群的水资源压力将进一步加剧,提高用水效率、升级产业结构、提倡低水足迹消费模式、实行虚拟水战略是实现京津冀城市群可持续发展的有效途径。     

基于社会水循环概念的水资源管理理论探讨

在剖析目前水资源管理定义之缺陷的基础上,引入社会水循环概念,提出了水资源管理的定义:水资源管理是以构建良性社会水循环、实现水资源可持续利用为目的,政府有关部门依据水法调控社会水循环各循环要素所实施的行政管理。并依据社会水循环的概念框架,简要阐述了水资源管理的主要内容。     

Water demand management and the quest for sustainability

This paper problematises positivist framings of water demand management (WDM) that define the average‐water‐user. Through a situated, case‐study account undertaken in suburban Auckland, we highlight variable social and cultural underpinnings of domestic water use. Activities that are commonly the focus of WDM are shown to be embedded elements of life around which relationships, affects and futures are woven. As a consequence, myopically focusing on the technical–managerial mediation of what are socionatural relations reduces prospects to achieve intended policy outcomes. Reframing WDM as a hydrosocial process provides a basis for water providers to develop more culturally appropriate water management.     

Economic Efficiency of Residential Water Conservation Programs in a Pennsylvania Public Water Utility

This study examines the economic efficiency of implementing a residential water conservation program in a small Pennsylvania public water utility. Local demographic data and results from similar programs elsewhere were used to estimate potential water conservation for three programs: rebates for low-flow toilets, rebates for high-efficiency washing machines, and in-home water audits. Future water supply and wastewater treatment demand were estimated. The net present value of constructing, operating, and maintaining new capacity infrastructure (water supply, water storage tanks, and wastewater treatment plant capacity), as well as the costs of the conservation programs, was calculated for a range of scenarios that included future demand growth, construction costs, interest rates, and levels of participation in the conservation programs. Results indicate that investing in residential water conservation would be cost-effective for a small number of scenarios that generally combine higher growth rates, higher interest rates, higher construction costs, and relatively modest public participation in conservation. The results are affected by the timing of necessary supply-side investments relative to the most significant water conservation gains, the relatively inexpensive local water supply costs, and the relatively high local wastewater treatment costs. Water conservation might be cost-effective for a wider range of conditions in communities facing scarce and expensive water supply options.