第纳尔(Dinaric)喀斯特台地的一些大型漏斗

Dinaric喀斯特的主要特征是各种各样的洼地,包括坡立谷、漏斗、塌陷漏斗及其它类似塌陷漏斗的洼地.这类地形的一些大尺度洼地分布于高喀斯特台地(如斯洛文尼亚的Pokljuka,Jelovica和Sne(z)nik)、喀斯特接触带(如(S)kocjanske溶洞)、坡立谷上的基面(如Imotski坡立谷上的红湖)和大型喀斯特泉群之后(如Malni泉群上的Un(s)ka koli(s)evka漏斗).喀斯特洼地的许多术语都是依据据斯洛文尼亚的地貌定义的.     

巴布亚新几内亚Muller高原的大漏斗

Muller高原位于巴布亚新几内亚南部高地,以发育大漏斗(giant doline)群而闻名.这些漏斗中许多具有可与新不列巅岛Nakanai山地的超级漏斗(megadoline)和中国南方喀斯特天坑相媲美的特大规模和形态,都属"岩盖(caprock)"型漏斗.Muller高原的地质、自然地理和水文环境可与Nakanai山地环境和中国南方喀斯特区环境相对比.本文讨论了Muller高原上三个大漏斗群(Rogorepo,Mamo和Atea)的形成机制.Muller高原的大漏斗,像Nakanai的超级漏斗和中国天坑一样,形成于更新世.Muller高原漏斗的形成环境与其它大漏斗有许多相似性.然而,它却不可能演化成像Nakanai超级漏斗一样壮丽,像中国天坑那样具有极高美学价值,其原因在于石灰岩地层中有不纯非石灰岩夹层.     

封闭型洼地的级别划分:天坑级别

机械的不稳定性和崩塌块石的溶蚀搬运以及二者之间的相互作用是喀斯特区大型塌陷构造的发育条件. 早期存在的空洞中的崩塌块石如果没有有效的搬运机制,空洞的向上发展就会中止.溶蚀的速率、原始空间的大小和上覆基岩的地形最终决定了地表地貌的规模.塌陷地形的规模从小落水洞到几百米宽如墨西哥Golondrinas崩塌坑不等.从整个级别序列上看,天坑可以说是此类崩塌地貌的终极地形.     

术语“Karst”的起源和演化

对于术语＂karst＂的起源和演化,不少文献（包括手册、教科书、字典等）仍有不准确、不一致甚至错误的论述。鉴于此,本文不仅重述了众所周知的关于＂karst＂起源的事实,而且介绍了＂karst＂起源和演化的最新语言学研究结果。＂karst＂是由喀尔斯（Kras）高地的名称演化而来的。喀尔斯位于亚得里亚海的里雅斯特湾（Gulf of Trieste）达尔马提亚（Dal matia）海岸地区,其大部分属于斯洛文尼亚。喀尔斯是一处海拔150~450 m,覆盖面积550 km2（长约40 km,宽约13 km）的碳酸盐岩高地。斯洛文尼亚语、意大利语和德语分别称之为Kras、Carso和Karst。喀尔斯高地表面大致平坦,但从局部看,喀斯特洼地遍布,各种典型的喀斯特地貌形态随处可见,包括坡立谷、大小溶斗（包括大的塌陷溶斗）、喀斯特干谷和溶洞。这些形态规模较小,起伏平缓。喀尔斯高地的名称起源于前罗马时期,其古典拉丁语名称（也是目前已知最早的名称）为Carsus。该词的词根＊kar（u）s-是由意思为＂石头或岩石＂的词根＊kar-演化而来。从欧洲众多文献中可以发现有许多名词来自前印欧语系的词根kar（r）a/gar（r）a。这些词根最初意思指石头或岩石,而后发展为石头筑成的遮盖物——一间房屋,一座城堡,甚至一个村落,这些词根还演化成喀斯特相关术语。由Carsus的宾格形式Carsum演变成现代意大利语名称Carso;同样的宾格依据前斯洛文尼亚语言规则（即r或l出现在元音和辅音字母之间时,须将其移至元音字母之前。）演变成Kras;德语Karst则是由意大利语Carso依据德语变化规则（以s结束的单词末尾须添加t）演变而来。由此可见,Kras、Karst和Carso均源于古拉丁文Carsus,该词含有词根＊kar（u）s-。印刷技术的改进和新大陆的发现,带动了地图和地图集的出版。喀尔斯高地的名称不仅出现在地方性地图上,而且被大尺度区域性地图所标示出来,德文Karst甚至被用作区域地图的标题,足见喀尔斯高地的重要性。喀尔斯高地之所以比其它更大的地区重要且较早为人们所认识,与历史的地缘政治形势有关。16至19世纪,地中海东海岸大多由威尼斯共和国管辖,的里雅斯特港口和内陆地区则隶属于奥地利和土耳其帝国。对于奥地利帝国的公民,大部分中欧人和小部分东欧人来说,通向地中海唯一可行的途径就是从维也纳穿过卢布尔雅那市（Lju-bljana）,经喀尔斯高地,至的里雅斯特镇。1719年,当的里雅斯特港宣布成为自由港后,这条道路变得更为重要。与此同时,喀尔斯高地不寻常的地貌和恶劣的自然环境给途经的旅行者和学者留下了深刻的印象。在他们的旅行记录中对Kras有近乎相同的描述：＂碳酸盐岩裸露,岩洞繁多,没有水和土壤,夏暑冬寒,冬季强烈的冷风暴有时让高地无法通行......＂。此后,当描述其他喀斯特地区时,作者们往往会将其与Kras（Karst）相类比。1830年F.J.H.Hohenwart在《Postojna岩洞导游手册》中,第一次确切地写道＂喀斯特地貌不仅存在于Karst高地,它从Friuli平原一直延伸至希腊岛……＂。十九世纪上半叶,地质、地理和水文学者开始了对喀尔斯高地的详细研究,出版了喀斯特地质地貌方面的著作,并开始使用一些喀斯特术语。自1830年起,由于这些记述性的文字和专业著作大多用德语撰写,德语名称Karst逐渐为更多地区的人们所了解。19世纪末20世纪初,可以说＂karst＂已经成为国际科技术语。对＂karst＂加入国际术语行列影响最大的可能是毕业于维也纳大学的Jovan Cviji′c教授,他是最重要的学者之一,也是著名地形学教授A.Penck的学生。他最重要的喀斯特著作＂Das Karstphanomen＂（The phenomenon of Karst）的书名中就使用了＂karst＂。＂karst＂就这样由一个地名逐渐演变为学术名词,然后成为国际科技术语。     

基于正态云模型的浏阳市永和镇岩溶塌陷易发性研究

在对浏阳市永和镇既有岩溶塌陷进行详细勘查的基础上,选取了岩溶发育程度（钻孔溶蚀率）、与区内断层的距离、上覆土层厚度、岩溶水特征、与人工抽水漏斗中心的距离以及地面塌陷现状（地面塌陷密度）等6个岩溶塌陷易发性评价因子,提出了赋值条件及赋值范围,并根据既有塌陷的评价因子评分状况,采用熵值法获取了评价因子的权重,基于正态云模型对研究区岩溶塌陷灾害的易发性进行了评价。正态云模型评价结果中既有岩溶塌陷均分布在岩溶塌陷高易发区,而层次分析法评价结果中3个既有塌陷分布在岩溶塌陷中易发区,说明正态云模型在处理类似岩溶塌陷易发性评价等模糊性及随机性问题时比层次分析法更精准。     

典型溶蚀丘陵系统岩溶发育特征及其水资源开发条件分析：以湖南省新？…

我国典型溶蚀丘陵型岩溶发育区主要分布于湘中的新化县一涟源县一带。受中国大陆梯级地形、复杂地质背景、气候水文等内外环境因子的联合作用,发育一系列独具特色的不同类型的岩溶地貌及形态组合。宏观岩溶地貌主要有四种类型：丛丘谷地、丘岭谷地、峰丛洼地谷地和峰丘谷地。不同单元岩溶发育特征差异明显。溶蚀速度在地谷地和峰丘谷地。不同单元岩溶 发育特征差异明显。溶蚀速度在１０．２６～３０．３４ｍ＾３／ｋｍ＾２．ａ,总     

湖南宁乡大成桥地区岩溶地面塌陷分布特征及影响因素分析

湖南宁乡大成桥地区至2012年产生岩溶地面塌陷484处。文章通过对地质环境条件及岩溶地面塌陷时空分布特征的分析,总结出本区岩溶地面塌陷的分布特征和影响因素:（1）岩溶发育区发生塌陷428处,占总数的88.5%;冲沟地形中发生岩溶地面塌陷339处,占70%;覆盖层厚度小于10 m区发生塌陷335处,占总数的69.2%;双层结构区发生塌陷266处,占总数的55%,分布密度为7.82处/km2;冲洪积成因土体产生塌陷404处,残积土中产生塌陷80处;(2)岩溶地面塌陷在雨季的4-7月发生281处,占总数的58%;2001-2006年平均每年产生塌陷20处,2007-2012年平均每年产生塌陷54处,逐年增加趋势明显;（3）484处岩溶地面塌陷全部分布在煤炭坝疏干排水形成的降落漏斗范围之内;（4）本区地质环境极为脆弱:岩溶发育,覆盖层厚度较薄、力学性质差且双层结构土广泛分布于冲沟及冲积平原,是产生塌陷的内在因素;矿区疏干排水是主要诱发因素,降雨分布不均、地表水渗漏及河道整治对塌陷产生起促进作用。      

南方典型溶蚀丘陵系统现代岩溶作用强度研究

我国典型溶蚀丘陵系统分布于湖南中西部雪峰山地区的新化 -涟源县一带。主要宏观岩溶地貌类型有丛丘谷地、峰丘谷地、峰丛洼 (谷 )地、丘岭谷地。它们之间岩溶发育程度、形态组合特征差异明显。本文在论述不同地貌系统岩溶水水化学特征及其溶蚀能力的基础上 ,用水化学平衡法对不同地貌区的溶蚀速度进行了计算 ,并分析了现代岩溶作用强度趋异的原因。溶蚀丘陵区平均溶蚀速度为 2 5 .19m3·km- 2 ·a- 1 ,决定了该区宏观地貌以半岩溶形态为主导特征。     

广东佛山市高明区三洲盆地岩溶塌陷发育特征与时空分布规律

以佛山市高明区三洲盆地作为研究区,在系统收集区内区域地质、构造、工程、水文、环境、历史灾害等基础上,通过野外走访调查,查明了研究区岩溶塌陷发育特征,并对其时空分布规律进行了分析。结果表明:（1）区内岩溶塌陷规模以小型为主,其平面形态以圆形、似圆形为主,其剖面形态以漏斗状居多,并且剖面形态随覆盖层厚度增大总体呈现由圆柱状—坛状—漏斗状—碟状的变化规律;（2）空间上岩溶塌陷的分布受地层岩性、地质构造、覆盖层厚度及结构、地下水迳流和人类工程活动等影响;（3）时间上人为塌陷的发生主要与采矿活动和钻探施工时间关系密切,而自然塌陷主要发生在每年旱涝交替期间（即3—4月份）。     

泥灰质岩石区几种岩溶地貌形态及成因探讨——以三峡地区为例

泥灰质岩石区岩溶地貌是地貌研究的薄弱环节。本文以三峡地区为例,提出了该区泥灰质岩石分布区广泛发育的漏斗状沼泽凹地、脖颈状岩溶地貌、两沟之间的槽状谷地和溶蚀台地 4种地貌形态,探讨了这些地貌的成因,并指出各种岩溶地貌之间的相互关联和叠加。岩溶地貌的发育与岩溶地质灾害有着密切的关系,因此这一研究对泥灰质岩石区的工程建设,特别是三峡移民迁建具有重要的意义。     

喀斯特天坑略论

上世纪80 年代, 人们知道我国四川省兴文县的石海洞乡(石林)风景区有个“ 小岩湾” 的大型喀斯特漏斗, 但多少年来并未引起喀斯特学术界的重视。近年来, 随着这类喀斯特形态在我国南方喀斯特区的一系列重要科学发现, 为我们对这一现象的一般性研究提供了机会。在初步研究的过程中我们认识到, 应该将这类形态从大型漏斗中分离出来, 并命名为“ 喀斯特天坑”(karst tiankeng)。本文是这一研究成果的初步小结, 内容包括:国内外天坑的现有发现;喀斯特漏斗与天坑、天坑定义;天坑的成因类型、形成条件与发育阶段;天坑在科学研究及旅游资源开发中的意义。      

Doline probability map using logistic regression and GIS technology in the central Ebro Basin (Spain)

In the surroundings of Zaragoza, karstification processes are especially intense in covered karst areas where fluvial terraces lie directly on Tertiary evaporites. Since the beginning of Quaternary, these processes have lead to the development of collapse and subsidence dolines with a wide range of sizes, which have significant economic impacts. To reduce economic impact and increase safety, a regional analysis of this phenomenon is needed for spatial management. Therefore, a probability map of dolines was developed using logistic regression and geographic information system (GIS) techniques. This paper covers the selection of input data, manipulation of data using the GIS technology, and the use of logistic regression to generate a doline probability map. The primary variable in the doline development in this area is geomorphology, represented by the location of endorheic areas and different terrace levels. Secondary variables are the presence of irrigation and the water table gradient.     

GIS based analysis of doline density on Taurus Mountains,Turkey

The Taurus Mountain is one of the most important karstic region of the world and dolines are characteristics landforms of this area. However, the number and distribution of doline are unknown in the study area. The aims of this study are to explain the total number of dolines, distribution of doline density, effects of slope conditions and the change of doline orientation in the Taurus Mountains. According to the 1/25000 scale topographic maps utilized in this study, a total of 140,070 dolines were determined in a 13,189 km² area on eleven high karstic plateaus bordered by steep slopes and deep gorges. These plateaus are substantially affected by highly-faulted and jointed systems and about 80% of each plateau is covered with neritic limestone. The dolines are located at an elevation between 10 and 2870 m. Average elevation of all dolines is 1842 m. 90% of dolines are located between 1300 and 2270 m and only 5% of dolines found under 1330 m. According to this results, the densest doline zone corresponds to the alpine and periglacial zone above the treeline. Doline density reaches?>?100 doline/km² on Mt. Anamas and the Seyran, Geyik and Akda? ranges as well as the Ta?eli plateau. Maximum density (187 doline/km²) is found on the Akda? Mountains. However, 66% of the study area is characterized by low density, 29.9% with moderate density, 3.4% with high density and 0.7% with very high density. The highest doline densities are seen on gentle slopes (15°–25°/km²) and steep slopes (>?35°/km²) are limited doline distribution. According to the rose diagram formed by the azimuths of the long axis of the dolines at the Central Taurus, two direction are dominant in doline orientations (NW–SE and NE–SW). However, dominant directions are NE-SW at eastern, NE–SW and NW–SE at central and NW-SE at western part of the Central Taurus. According to this elongations, doline orientations are formed an arc which is formed by tectonic evolution of the Central Taurus.     

On the value of dolines in gypsum terrains as a “Geological Heritage”: an example from Sivas basin, Turkey

Karst topography is a landscape shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually limestone and evaporites. Karstification in the Sivas basin (Turkey) has sculpted a beautiful landscape with a distinctive beauty and appeal for both local inhabitants and visitors. Dolines are very special geological landscape features found in karst regions, and the Sivas basin has several giant dolines amongst its thousands of smaller dolines. The basin constitutes a distinctive karst architecture with a system of collapse and/or dolines and caves. Anyone who walks along the shores of a lake resulting from the collapse, in this gypsum terrain, will be amazed with the lake and rocks that surround them. In this paper, dolines in the gypsum terrain are evaluated and discussed according to their value as a “Geological Heritage”. Three main characteristics of dolines, namely their scientific, aesthetic and ecosystem importance are considered and discussed. Dolines and karstified areas as representative examples of landform types possess the three attributes for them to be considered as a Geological Heritage in that they demonstrate the effect of erosion on the landform, geomorphic processes that are still active and a range of features characteristic of the rock unit involved.     

Karst in Gypsum and its environmental impact on the Middle Ebro Basin,Spain

The Middle Ebro Basin in characterised by strong evaporitic profiles from the Miocene period, and in which gypsum formations are predominant. These groups of easy solubility produce in many areas typically karstic landforms, although there are certain features specific to them. The generated landforms appear on the surface as different morphological types of doline, which very often develop on the alluvium deposited by the River Ebro and its affluents. On the agricultural land of the Peñaflor-Villamayor area the functional character of karst causes collapse dolines to appear after heavy storms, and these are constantly filled in by farmers. Motorways and roads that cross these areas, as also the industrial estates existing on the outskirts of Zaragoza, are affected by dissolution processes that bring about continual collapses. The infiltration of water from unlined canals causes the generation of numerous dolines along canal banks.     

The South-East Karst Province of South Australia

The South-East Karst Province of South Australia is an extensive area of low relief with dolines, cenotes, uvalas, and a variety of cave types developed in the soft, porous, flat-lying Tertiary Gambier Limestone and also as syngenetic karst in the overlying calcarenite dunes of the Pleistocene Bridgewater Formation. The most spectacular surface karst features are the large collapse dolines, especially those that extend below the water table to form cenotes. Shallow swampy hollows occur in superficial Quaternary sediments. These are an enigmatic feature of the Bool Region, where all gradations appear to occur between definite karst dolines and nonkarstic hollows. Some depressions may be polygenetic—involving a combination of: (1) primary depositional hollows on coastal flats or in dune fields, (2) deflation, and (3) karst solution and subsidence. There are extensive underwater cave systems in the southern part of the province, and the bulk of the cave development there may well lie below the present water table, although these systems would have been at least partly drained during the lower sea levels of the last glacial period. Systematic variations within the province reflect differences in the parent rock types, the extent and nature of the cover and, most importantly, the hydrology—in particular the depth to the water table and its gradient.     

A time-distribution study of doline collapse: Framework for prediction

A temporal analysis of doline collapse on the Western Highland Rim (Tennessee) indicated one approach to estimating the probability of collapse in areas where the geologic and hydrologic criteria associated with collapse have been identified. The distribution of collapse was examined for trend, autocorrelation, and goodness of fit. The distribution of doline collapse during one 12-month period conformed to a Poisson distribution with a mean occurrence rate of λ=0.346 collapses per week and with the interoccurrence times being exponentially distributed (0.01 level). Although the proposed model is spatially and temporally restricted, it may provide an initial framework for estimating the probability of doline collapse in other karst terrains of similar geologic and hydrologic settings.     

Space–time distribution of ancient and active alluvial karst subsidence: examples from the central Ebro Basin,Spain

Space and time variations of alluvial karst subsidence in the central Ebro Basin are analysed in trenches (paleodolines), aerial photographs (historical dolines) and field surveys (present-day active dolines). The measured subsidence rates, as well as a comparison between densities of paleodolines computed in randomly selected scan-lines and density of active dolines computed in maps, suggest that present-day subsidence in favourable areas is more intense than that of Pleistocene times. According to diachronic maps drawn from (a) different aerial photographs taken after 1946 and (b) field surveys on deformations in urbanized areas, subsidence behaved as a nearly steady process while the whole area was used for agriculture. In contrast, rapid changes (through periods of several tens of years) have occurred in urbanized areas, in which dolines expand their boundaries through small marginal collapses, shifting sharply their sinking centres to neighbouring sites. These rapid changes do not have an equivalent in observed paleodolines.     

Dologrus: The impact of meteoric-water-controlled diagenesis following early-marine dolomitization

Carbonate rocks that have suffered early near-surface dolomitization followed by extended meteoric exposure commonly undergo partial delithification, a process that results in the formation of dolomitic silts and sands, herein termed dologrus. Dologrus is interpreted to form as a result of diffuse dissolution in porous and permeable dolostones prior to burial and compaction. Such dissolution occurs at the crystal–pore-water interface, causing individual crystals to corrode along interfacial boundaries, eventually leading to delithification and the formation of sediment composed of corroded crystals. The resulting sediment grain size is likely controlled in part by the crystal size of the precursor dolostone. Loss of rock competency through the process of dologrus formation in the shallow subsurface can lead to collapse of overlying bedrock and the formation of dolines common to karstic carbonate landscapes.     

Mapping subsurface karst features with GPR: results and limitations

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) has been applied, with relative success, to locate paleo-collapses and cavities and to detect and characterise karst. One of its main advantages is that, while the penetration depth is limited to several tens of meters or even just several meters, the obtained resolution can be in the scale of centimeters. In this paper, we illustrate the applicability of GPR prospecting to the study of alluvial karst and the structures associated with subsidence areas. GPR radargrams obtained with two central frequency antennas (50 and 100 MHz) are balanced against direct observation of geological features of collapse structures in vertical exposures of gravel quarries. GPR-surveys offer the possibility of obtaining nearly continuous vertical cross-sections of the subsoil, and integration of data within a 3D frame. However, the study of the internal structure of the subsoil by means of the GPR-profiles has been usually neglected. In this work, we show that some hints about the evolution of individual dolines can be established from the study of the geometry of the sedimentary filling by means of GPR. The obtained results indicate that GPR allows to characterise the structures associated with karst features and can therefore be useful evaluating hazard susceptibility in doline fields, because: (1) when no surface evidences exists, it permits the detection of karst hazards in the subsoil, and (2) when surficial evidences of karst activity are present, it permits the characterisation of processes associated with subsidence.