木吉村斑岩铜矿成矿作用:华北克拉通中生代岩石圈减薄的响应

木吉村铜(钼、金)矿位于华北克拉通太行山北段中生代岩浆岩带,为大型隐伏斑岩型矿床.矿体赋存于侏罗纪髫髻山组与火山岩相关的闪长玢岩次火山岩相中.木吉村髫髻山组安山岩中岩浆锆石的两组U-Pb年龄分别为(150.5±3.0) Ma和(140.8±3.0) Ma,与北京西山髫髻山组火山岩锆石U-Pb年龄范围(156.6～137...     

冀北承德盆地髫髻山组火山岩的时代

随着近年来的研究进展,代表燕山期大规模火山喷发的髫髻山期(蓝旗期)火山岩的年代学数据得到迅速积累。本文在结合前人对燕山地区髫髻山期(蓝旗期)火山岩 U-Pb 同位素定年工作的基础上,对取自冀北承德盆地兴隆山附近髫髻山组火山岩顶、底样品的锆石进行 U-Pb LA-ICP-MS 定年,试图进一步限定该地区髫髻山期火山岩起始和结束的时代。承德盆地髫髻山组火山岩定年结果表明,其顶部晶屑凝灰岩时代为153±1Ma(2σ),底部粗安岩时代为156±3Ma(2σ)。两者时代在误差范围内一致,说明该地区髫髻山组火山岩喷发是在短时期内完成的。燕山地区髫髻山期(蓝旗期)火山岩时代综合对比分析结果表明髫髻山组(蓝旗组)火山岩初步限定的底部年龄和顶部年龄分别为158±1Ma、153±1Ma。其形成时代在晚侏罗世。土城子组(后城组)与髫髻山组(蓝旗组)火山岩的界线年龄为153±1Ma,这是第一次获得我国中生代陆相地层界线年龄。土城子组顶部的时限确定在134±2～136±2Ma 之间。其沉积时代为晚侏罗世至早白垩世。而髫髻山组火山岩之下的九龙山组的时代可能亦为晚侏罗世。区域张家口组的底部时代限定在134±2Ma。     

太行神仙山髫髻山组火山岩锆石SHRIMP U-Pb年龄及其地质意义

太行山中北段发育大量燕山期中-酸性火山岩,其中位于太行山北段的涞源县神仙山地区的断陷盆地正是其中—期构造-岩浆活动形成的逆冲推覆残片.本文报道了研究区内广泛出露的髫髻山组安山质角砾凝灰岩的锆石SHRIMP U-Pb年龄为131±2 Ma.该年龄对太行山地区的髫髻山组火山岩进行了时限上的厘定并限定了太行山北段北西向拉张断裂构造系统的发育时间.本研究为太行山中生代岩浆活动研究提供了新的依据.     

北京十三陵——西山髫髻山组火山岩年龄及其地质意义

北京西北部地区分布着大量的火山岩,对北京西山大台和十三陵地区的髫髻山组火山岩分别进行了SHRIMP锆石U-Pb和LA-ICP-MS定年,并对十三陵地区的髫髻山组火山岩进行了地球化学研究。结果表明,十三陵地区的髫髻山组火山岩地球化学特征和北京西山髫髻山组火山岩具有相似性。火山岩地球化学特征表现为高Al_2O_3、Ca O、Na_2O,低Ti O_2和Mg O,在TAS图中落入粗安岩和英安岩区域,REE分馏明显,LREE富集,HREE亏损,Eu异常不明显,富集大离子亲石元素K、Sr、Ba,亏损高场强元素Nb、Ta、Ti,高的Sr/Y比值,同时Yb和Y的含量较低。在大台地区,分别获得了髫髻山组火山岩底部角砾岩和中部安山岩的SHRIMP锆石U-Pb年龄为152.1±1.9Ma、149±2Ma,侵入到髫髻山组下覆九龙山组地层中一闪长岩岩床年龄为149±3.2Ma;在十三陵地区,分别获得了髫髻山组底部凝灰岩、中部火山角砾岩和上部安山岩的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄分别为157.2±1.2Ma、155.2±1.7Ma、153.1±2.2Ma。结合前人研究,十三陵地区髫髻山组火山时代为157~153Ma,大台地区髫髻山组火山活动时间为152~137Ma,十三陵地区的火山活动时间要稍早于北京西山大台地区。大台地区和十三陵地区地球化学、地质年代学及区域地质特征表明,北京西山和十三陵地区喷发时间的差异是由于燕山运动所形成不整合面的穿时性导致的,位于髫髻山组之下的不整合是一个主不整合面。     

北京西山髫髻山组火山岩的地球化学特征与岩浆起源

对北京西山髫髻山组粗安岩斜长石Ar-Ar年龄测定获得全坪年龄和等时线年龄分别为148.91Ma±2.98Ma和146.60Ma±2.93Ma(相关系数r=0.9997),本文将其时代划为晚侏罗世.元素-同位素地球化学显示,西山髫髻山组火山岩主要为高钾钙碱性系列,低Ti\K,高Al\Ca和Na,轻稀土元素富集,Eu异常不明显,大离子亲石元素Rb\Sr\Ba等相对富集,高场强元素Nb\Ta\Ti\Zr\Hf相对亏损,Nd\Sr和Pb同位素比值较低,反映出火山岩形成于岛弧或活动大陆边缘,其源岩为富集地幔.据此认为髫髻山组火山岩形成于陆内挤压环境,由中生代玄武质岩浆底侵于下地壳-壳幔过渡带诱发古老(太古宙)的玄武质岩石部分熔融形成的.     

河北木吉村斑岩铜矿辉钼矿Re_Os定年、成矿斑岩锆石U_Pb定年和Hf同位素组成研究

木吉村斑岩铜矿位于华北克拉通太行山北段。对含矿闪长玢岩精细SHRIMP U_Pb定年和Hf同位素地球化学研究表明:闪长玢岩结晶于142.0±1.5 Ma,闪长玢岩锆石εHf(t)值为-21.2~-17.9,相应的tDMC为2.3~2.5Ga,与杂岩体内辉长闪长岩具有相似的Hf同位素特征:εHf(t)值为-19.6~-15.3。利用辉钼矿Re_Os同位素测年技术,对木吉村斑岩铜矿床中5件斑岩型矿石中辉钼矿进行定年,获得木吉村斑岩铜矿高精度成矿年龄。斑岩矿石中辉钼矿Re_Os模式年龄为144.5~145.5 Ma,加权平均值为144.8±1.4 Ma,5件样品辉钼矿等时线年龄为145.3±2.2 Ma,该年龄与加权平均年龄一致,可代表木吉村斑岩铜矿床的成矿时代。壳幔物质的相互作用对于木吉村成岩、成矿过程发挥着决定性控制作用。与华北克拉通内部其他地区相同,晚侏罗-早白垩世北太行地区处于软流圈上涌的岩石圈伸展构造背景。     

地壳与弱化岩石圈地幔的相互作用:以燕山造山带为例

燕山造山带中生代发育4期钙碱性火山活动,它们的源区组成都是受壳幔相互作用的制约,其中髫髻山组和义县组分布广泛,具有代表性．髫髻山组岩性比较单一,地球化学参数变化范围小,岩浆的AFC作用不强烈,源区成分不复杂．依据Kay et al．(1991)的方法,估算了早-中侏罗世燕山地区的地壳厚度为40-45 km.髫髻山组粗安岩是在加厚的地壳 (40-45 km)条件下,源区是含角闪石的石榴石麻粒岩 底侵的基性岩的壳幔过渡带熔融形成．义县组火山岩的源区为下地壳 岩石圈地幔,地幔组分较髫髻山组增加．研究区中生代早期地壳开始加厚,发生下地壳拆沉,进入流变学性质改变了的“弱化的岩石圈地幔”,二者发生作用．岩石圈地幔在中生代晚期受到流体、熔体、地幔矿物中活化的分子水、剪切构造作用,以及温、压条件改变的影响,导致岩石圈地幔发生不均一的局部弱化,为容纳拆沉的下地壳提供了优化场所．推测弱化岩石圈地幔出现于135 Ma以后燕山地区发育的小型拉伸盆地之下,以及对应的小型软流圈底辟体之上．上述模型可以与俯冲带的楔形地幔与俯冲洋壳的相互作用相对比．     

冀北滦平地区中生代火山岩地层锆石U-Pb测年及启示

在冀北—辽西地区, 冀北的滦平地区是中生代地层最为齐全, 也是唯一的晚中生代沉积作用基本连续的地区.许多研究者认为该地区的土城子组与张家口之间存在着J₃—K₁界线和中生代的构造转换界面.该地区分布的主要中生代地层自下而上依次为髫髻山组、土城子组、张家口组、大北沟组、大店子组和西瓜园组.通过LAICPMS方法的锆石UPb测年, 获得了该地区中生代火山岩地层的年代格架, 即髫髻山组的顶界年龄为(162.8±3.2)Ma, 土城子组形成的主体年代范围是(142.6±1.3)~(136.4±1.9)Ma, 张家口组形成的年代范围是(135.7±1.8)~(135.2±2.3)Ma, 大店子组顶部安山岩的年龄是(131.4±3.7)~(130.2±3.0)Ma.锆石的稀土元素分析表明: 土城子组中锆石的稀土元素特征与张家口组中锆石的特征一致, 而与髫髻山组中的锆石有较大的区别.综合以上分析数据及野外地质特征可以得出以下结论: (1)该地区的土城子组与髫髻山组之间不仅时间间隔较长, 而且二者中火山岩的源区也有较大的区别; 土城子组与张家口组之间不仅时间上基本连续, 而且二者中火山岩的源区也有明显的一致性.这就表明了滦平地区的土城子组与张家口组是同一地质背景下的产物, 即该地区二者之间应不存在J₃—K₁界面和构造转换界面.(2)滦平地区大店子组顶部火山岩在年代上与辽西北票—义县地区的义县组底部、辽西凌源地区的张家口组顶部基本相当.      

冀东金宝沟花岗斑岩地球化学特征、LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄和Hf同位素及其地质意义

金宝沟金矿床是冀东地区近年查明的一个大型斑岩型金矿床,金矿体主要赋存于金宝沟花岗斑岩体及岩体与太古宙迁西群黑云角闪斜长片麻岩接触带中。为查明金宝沟含矿花岗斑岩体的成岩时代、岩石地球化学特征、岩浆源区特征及其与区域上峪耳崖、牛心山等成矿花岗岩体的关系,采用LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年方法,测得金宝沟2件花岗斑岩的成岩年龄分别为169.9±1.0Ma和170.4±2.0Ma,表明其形成于中侏罗世。金宝沟花岗斑岩属于过铝质钾玄岩系列岩石,∑REE含量为38.17×10~(-6)~136.51×10~(-6),岩石富集Rb、K等大离子亲石元素和Ba、Th、U,亏损Ta、Nb、Ti等高场强元素和P、Sr,显示出典型岛弧或活动大陆边缘岩浆岩的特征。锆石Hf同位素研究显示,2件花岗斑岩样品的锆石ε_(Hf)(t)分别为-12.8~-7.4和-14.4~-8.8,两阶段模式年龄分别为1685~2028Ma和1773~2130Ma,暗示岩浆可能来源于古元古代地壳物质的部分熔融。金宝沟花岗斑岩岩浆形成的温度为788~834℃,岩浆形成压力为0.8~1.6GPa。结合区域地质资料认为,包括金宝沟花岗斑岩在内的冀东中侏罗世花岗岩及同时代的髫髻山组火山岩是在陆内收缩、地壳增厚、古太平洋板块向欧亚大陆俯冲的构造背景下,在挤压应力松弛的间隙环境侵位的。     

福建平和包围山钼矿床锆石U-Pb和辉钼矿Re-Os年龄及其地质意义

通过对平和包围山钼矿床成矿岩体、赋矿火山岩及辉钼矿开展同位素年代学研究,结果表明:包围山深部花岗斑岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为(98.1±1.1)Ma,容矿围岩-石帽山群底部凝灰熔岩成岩年龄为(104.6±1.1)Ma;矿体中辉钼矿的Re-Os同位素模式年龄为(95.2±1.5)Ma。辉钼矿中Re的含量指示成矿来源与壳幔物质混合或幔源物质进一步演化有关。结合矿床地质特征及已有的研究成果,笔者认为包围山钼矿床的形成可能与125~92 Ma古太平洋板块的俯冲作用机制有关。受该期区域伸展构造背景的影响,上杭-云霄成矿带下地壳或上地幔部分熔融诱发了平和包围山一带岩浆-热液-成矿事件。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.