月球哥白尼纪地层特征与地质演化研究

月球哥白尼纪地层是月球演化历史中最年轻的地层单元,哥白尼纪撞击坑数量较少,但其形成的哥白尼纪地层却是全球性的、非常显著的,大多学者普遍认为哥白尼纪基本没有岩浆活动与构造活动。通过对月球哥白尼纪地层进行地质填图,认为月球高地地区撞击坑辐射纹相对月海地区辐射纹发育更好,推测其原因可能为高地与月海岩石性质不同,或撞击的小天体体积、能量、物质特征以及撞击的角度、速度不同等原因导致的;哥白尼纪地层可划分为早哥白尼世地层(C_1)、中哥白尼世地层(C_2)和晚哥白尼世地层(C_3),通过对各世典型撞击坑的分析与研究,阐述了哥白尼纪各世地层的特征,为开展月球晚期撞击作用特征与效应的研究提供了资料。对哥白尼纪-爱拉托逊纪地层界限进行了初步探讨,提出月球年代学多源数据综合判别法方案,以重新厘定哥白尼纪年代下限。     

月球第谷撞击坑区域数字地质填图及地质地貌特征

第谷撞击坑,位于月球南半球的正面,中心位置经纬度为S43°23′40.78″,W11°10′01.02″,具有醒目壮观的辐射纹地貌特征。文中应用多源数据对12个哥白尼纪典型月坑进行统计分析、影像特征的详细解释和对比研究,提出将哥白尼纪划分为早哥白尼世(C1)、中哥白尼世(C2)及晚哥白尼世(C3),并对第谷月坑进行综合数字地质填图,编制了第谷月坑区域地质图和岩石类型分布图。第谷月坑在撞击时由于大量能量的释放或后期火山岩浆活动形成了各种地质地貌,可分为大型地质地貌与小型地质地貌。大型地貌包括辐射纹堆积、坑缘堆积、弧形断块堆积、坑底中心平原堆积与陨石残体中央峰堆积等所形成的地质地貌类型;小型地貌包括堆积、侵蚀和岩浆作用形成的各种地质地貌类型。     

基于多源遥感数据的月球表面LQ-2区域撞击坑分布特征分析

撞击坑是月球表面最为普遍且显著的地貌单元和地质构造标志,其形态和布局特征蕴含了月球形貌发育演化的关键信息。基于中国探月工程获得的嫦娥一号CCD、嫦娥二号CCD影像数据和LOLA激光高度计等影像数据,结合专家知识,以LQ-2为研究区识别直径 10 km的撞击坑共计589个。并从撞击机理和撞击能量大小两个方面对坑物质类型及数量进行统计分析,得出不同地质年代、不同类型撞击坑在月球表面的空间分布特征。研究发现该区域撞击坑分布密度高,直径较小的撞击坑成片出露,形貌特征较为单一;直径较大的撞击坑主要集中在艾肯纪和酒海纪,数量较少,但撞击坑形态类型丰富。     

月球南海地区玄武岩厚度估算

月海玄武岩是月幔部分熔融喷出月表而形成的,其厚度可以反映月海玄武岩源区的深度。研究月海玄武岩厚度,对进一步认识月球区域岩浆作用或火山作用的演化历史具有不可替代的作用,也能够为整个月球的热演化和岩浆演化提供基本的约束条件。同时,玄武岩厚度可以用以推测月球内部产生玄武岩岩浆的体积,对月球火山作用的岩浆喷发总量以及月球内部的热状态具有指示作用。本文基于多源遥感数据,综合利用撞击坑的形貌特征与月坑挖掘深度法对南海地区撞击坑内(crater)和撞击坑间(intercrater)两类玄武岩地层的厚度进行了估算,并对玄武岩的面积、体积、年龄及岩浆活动做了简单分析。研究结果表明：南海地区撞击坑内的玄武岩厚度变化范围为0.11~4.75 km,平均值约为1.32 km,玄武岩的出露面积和出露体积分别为57.06~10 791.66 km2和10.25~51 260.38 km3;撞击坑间的玄武岩厚度变化范围为0.01~2.18 km,平均值约为0.34 km,玄武岩的出露面积和出露体积分别为6 487.89~33 170.55 km2和2 711.97~11 609.69 km3。因此,南海地区玄武岩厚度的变化范围分布在0.01~4.75 km,平均厚度约为600 m,出露的玄武岩总面积约为2.12×105 km2,总体积约为2.71×105 km3。通过分析南海地区的玄武岩年龄及分布特征,发现南海地区内的岩浆喷发活动主要集中发生在雨海纪至爱拉托逊纪时期,且其局部区域存在多次岩浆喷发及充填过程,但由于晚期玄武岩岩浆的喷发总量不足以覆盖早期已形成的玄武岩,导致晚期玄武岩与早期玄武岩同时存在于同一个玄武岩单元内。南海地区独特的玄武岩分布特征也与地形有关。     

月表典型区撞击坑形态分类及分布特征

月球表面环形构造主要有撞击坑、火山口和月海穹窿3种,其中撞击坑分布最广泛,是研究月表环形构造的主要内容。由于月表撞击坑数量大、种类多及其形成伴随着整个月球地质的演化过程,因此这种月表地形地貌比较完整地记录了月球表面地貌随时间的改造过程以及改造类型。文中通过研究撞击坑遥感影像及形貌特征,总结归纳为简单型、碗型、平底型、中央隆起型、同心环型、复杂型及月海残留型7种撞击坑类型,用来描述月表典型区域撞击坑的形态特征。从结构和物质两方面进行了月表典型区域撞击坑的形态地貌参数提取,综合利用嫦娥一号CCD 影像数据、LROC数据,得到了该区域撞击坑形态数据(坑底、坑唇、坑壁、坑缘、溅射物覆盖层、中央峰)和形态测量数据(直径、深度、地理位置)。研究发现,LQ 4地区的撞击坑分布可分为月陆区和月海区,月陆区的撞击坑多以中小型撞击坑为主,其分布密度极高,形成年代较早,月海区撞击坑多为年轻的撞击坑,分化程度较低,分布密度也较低。     

地月系统不同成因环形构造及其影像特征

环形构造是一种常见的地质现象,特别是在月球上分布更为普遍。本文论述了三种成因的环形构造,即:侵入岩成因的环形构造,火山成因的环形构造,以及小天体撞击形成的撞击坑。文中详细介绍了它们的成因与结构特征,指出侵入岩成因的环形构造主要由岩浆冷凝收缩形成,在遥感影像上主要表现为影像色调的不同;火山成因的环形构造为火山口,在遥感影像上具有环形结构;而小天体撞击形成的撞击坑形态复杂,如碗形坑、中心锥环形坑与多环撞击坑,撞击坑的坑沿外缓内陡,遥感影像上表现为环形或弧形构造,有些撞击坑具有辐射纹。     

月球虹湾幅(LQ-4)地质图的编制

应用中国首次月球探测工程所获得的嫦娥一号(Change-I)CCD影像数据、干涉成像光谱数据、数字高程模型(DEM)数据和数据分析处理结果等资料,开展了虹湾—雨海地区区域地质综合研究。通过对月球撞击坑及溅射堆积物分析,以及地层单元划分、构造单元划分、岩石类型划分、年代学和月球演化历史的集成分析,依据月坑的形态特征、充填物的多少和保留的程度等,将月球撞击坑划分出7种类型11个亚类,并将月球撞击坑堆积物系统划分为6种类型9个堆积岩组。根据TiO2的含量、分布及影像特征,将月海、月陆玄武岩划分为高钛玄武岩、中钛玄武岩和低钛玄武岩。应用ArcGIS地理信息系统,试点编制了1∶250万月球典型地区——虹湾幅(LQ-4)地质图,并建立了空间数据库,探索制定了月球数字地质图编制技术规范、流程和方法,为中国下一步应用嫦娥二号数据开展"全月球地质图"编制,以及未来其他天体的区域地质综合研究与地质编图工作奠定了基础。     

月表撞击坑自动识别与提取的新方法及其应用

月表撞击坑是月球最显著的地质构造特征。随着不同月球探测器探测数据的丰富与数据质量的提高,月表地质信息挖掘成为月球科学领域重要的研究内容。月表分布广泛的撞击事件的撞击机理研究和月表地质单元的地质年龄的判定等科学问题都离不开对撞击坑的研究。因此,对撞击坑进行识别和特征参数提取是挖掘以上月表地质隐含信息的基础和关键。针对目前用于撞击坑识别和特征参数提取的方法存在效率低下、应用范围有限等种种缺陷,提出了一种新的月表环形构造识别和特征参数提取方法,并且实现了定量自动化处理。首先,根据撞击坑环形构造特征,利用坡度指数提取坑壁多边形矢量要素;其次,提出并采用环形构造最小外包矩形法提取撞击坑的伪中心与伪直径;然后,以伪中心为中心点向外搜寻并确定撞击坑坑缘顶点;最后,利用三点定圆法确定撞击坑的中心位置和直径大小。以嫦娥一号CCD相机影像数据和利用CCD立体相机制作的DEM数据为数据源,选取不同区域、不同类型的月表撞击坑进行试验,并将计算结果与目前研究成果进行对比。结果验证表明,此方法可以推广到月表其他表面,并可应用于月表撞击坑形成机理研究和利用撞击坑大小频率分布测量的方法确定月表地质单元的地质年龄工作中。     

撞击坑统计定年法及对月球虹湾地区的定年结果

撞击作用是行星形成和表面重塑的重要地质过程,记录和揭示了行星的演化历史.撞击作用形成的撞击坑可用于研究天体表面地质单元形成的时间.依据内太阳系天体表面的撞击历史,总结了通过对撞击坑的直径和频率分布进行统计,计算天体表面模式年龄的原理和方法.在此基础上,利用美国“月球勘测轨道器(LRO)”广角相机获得的图像,对月球虹湾地区的撞击坑进行了直径-频率分布统计研究,获得其3个主要地质单元的绝对模式年龄分别为3.33 Ga、3.21 Ga和2.60 Ga,有效限定了本区主要地质事件发生的时间.      

基于全景相机数据的嫦娥四号着陆区次级坑统计分析

玉兔二号月球车在嫦娥四号着陆区发现了许多坑缘呈破碎石块状的小型撞击坑,其直径大多在亚米级,过去对于这种小尺度撞击坑的研究大多源于Apollo、Surveyor、Ranger系列任务,然而当时获取的影像质量较低,且并未覆盖月球背面.小尺度撞击坑在月球表面分布十分广泛,与月球最表层的演化密切相关,因此对其展开研究具有重要的意义.本文利用嫦娥四号任务获取的高分辨率全景影像,统计了8、9、11～15月昼影像中新鲜撞击坑的直径、频数、深度等信息,并根据这些撞击坑和周围石块的形态特征,推测这些坑应该形成于不同方向的二次撞击事件,这为揭示玉兔二号月球车行进途中观测物质的来源提供了重要信息.小型二次撞击坑从深径比中难以与一次撞击坑区分,且一般处于饱和状态,因此应避免使用小尺寸的撞击坑进行定年.     

A Preliminary Study of Classification Method on Lunar Topography and Landforms

Lunar topography and landform, resulting from endogenous and exogenous geophysical processes of various spatial and temporal scales, carry information of these processes and target properties. Geoscientists use morphometric analysis at different scales to study lunar topography, which is one of the four scientific objectives of China's lunar exploration project. This article first reviewed the lunar topographic types from different researchers, analyzed classifying method and progress, discussed geological mapping method of 1∶ 5 000 000 complied by United States Geological Survey in the 1970s. In consideration of the present situation of the lunar surface morphological characteristics, the pattern of macroscopic forcing, morphologic variation and combination characteristics and function way, etc., a matrix combining multi-stage classification method was put forward based on the characteristics of the topography and geologic age, which included 7 geologic ages and 14 morphologic classes. Geological ages can be divided into Copernican System (C), Copernican-Eartosthenian System (CE), Eartosthenian System (E), Eartosthenian-Imbrian System (EI), Imbrian System (I), Imbrian-PreImbrian System (IpI) and Pre-Imbrian System (pI). As to topographic types, the first class can be divided into lunar mare, lunar basin, lunar terra and lunar crater. As to their second class according to morphological differences, the lunar basin can be divided into basin plain and circum-basin, and lunar mare can be divided into mare plain and mare dome; lunar terra can be divided into terra plain, plateau and hill, and craters can be divided into main sequence crater, crater plain, secondary crater, crater chains and clusters, rayed craters, irregular crater and undivided crater. Thus, 46 subclasses including geologic and morphologic features were obtained in this classification system. The test mapping method was addressed in Sheet H010, which shows the combination classification method is reasonable.     

Verteilung,Eigenschaften und Entstehung der Auswurfsmassen des Impaktkraters Nördlinger Ries

Regarding the importance of the Ries impact structure in the field of planetary geology an attempt is made to synthesize the presently known results of geologic mapping in the Ries area and of general field and laboratory observations. The ballistic bulk ejecta of the crater (diameter about 23 km) form a continuous blanket of mixed breccia (“Bunte Trümmermassen”). Outside the crater more than 90% of its constituents are derived from unshocked fragments of the 750 m thick pre-Ries sedimentary rock strata. This blanket is overlain with a sharp discontinuity by suevite breccia which forms a continuous layer inside the crater and patch-like isolated occurrences outside the crater. Their pattern of distribution is believed to be primary. Suevite is mainly composed of fragments of all stages of shock metamorphism derived from the crystalline basement. The present asymmetrical distribution of éjecta outside the crater rim results from relatively young erosion during the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods. The erosional history indicates that the primary distribution of ejecta was symmetrical with respect to the center of the crater extending up to a distance of at least some 40 km from the impact center. A number of characteristics of the structure and composition of the Ries ejecta formations are discussed and verified quantitatively by new field data. It is shown that the structure and composition of the ejecta formations can be explained qualitatively by the physics of impact cratering and be duplicated by hypervelocity cratering experiments.     

Clarification of sources of material returned by Luna 24 spacecraft based on analysis of new images of the landing site taken by lunar reconnaissance orbiter

We describe the results of the geologic analysis of high-resolution (0.5 m/px) LROC NAC images of the landing site of the Luna 24 spacecraft, which landed in the southeastern part of Mare Crisium, drilled a borehole to the depth of ～2 m and recovered a core, which was then delivered to the Earth. LROC NAC images show that the spacecraft landed on the rim of the 65-m crater Lev. Image analysis was aided by calculations of the expected thickness of ejecta from crater Lev found to be 0.5–1 m. Using these calculations and the results of photogeologic analysis, we reconsidered the characteristics of the Luna 24 core material. This led to an understanding of the geologic position of different parts of the Luna 24 core and allowed us to distinguish in the core the intervals dominated by: 1—effects of arrival of ejecta from the 6.5-km crater Fahrenheit (Zone IV), 2—gradual reworking of the local regolith by small impacts (Zones II and III), and 3—emplacement of ejecta of Lev crater, which is a secondary of the distant 22-km crater Giordano Bruno (Zone I). This understanding allowed us to propose that some additional new analyses of the Luna 24 material be undertaken, with emphasis on the study of Zone IV and Zone I. Additional analysis of zone IV could search for and identify material of ejecta from the crater Fahrenheit and their comparisons with local materials, while new analysis of Zone I could study the material derived from the deepest parts of the local regolith and search for material of the impactor (ejecta from the very young Giordano Bruno crater on the lunar farside) that formed Lev crater.     

Impact ejecta and carbonate sequence in the eastern sector of the Chicxulub crater

The Chicxulub 200 km diameter crater located in the Yucatan platform of the Gulf of Mexico formed 65 Myr ago and has since been covered by Tertiary post-impact carbonates. The sediment cover and absence of significant volcanic and tectonic activity in the carbonate platform have protected the crater from erosion and deformation, making Chicxulub the only large multi-ring crater in which ejecta is well preserved. Ejecta deposits have been studied by drilling/coring in the southern crater sector and at outcrops in Belize, Quintana Roo and Campeche; little information is available from other sectors. Here, we report on the drilling/coring of a section of 34 m of carbonate breccias at 250 m depth in the Valladolid area (120 km away from crater center), which are interpreted as Chicxulub proximal ejecta deposits. The Valladolid breccias correlate with the carbonate breccias cored in the Peto and Tekax boreholes to the south and at similar radial distance. This constitutes the first report of breccias in the eastern sector close to the crater rim. Thickness of the Valladolid breccias is less than that at the other sites, which may indicate erosion of the ejecta deposits before reestablishment of carbonate deposition. The region east of the crater rim appears different from regions to the south and west, characterized by high density and scattered distribution of sinkholes.     

月球地质年代学研究方法及月面历史划分

介绍了确定月球地层单元相对年龄和绝对年龄的方法。建立相对年龄的方法主要有4种：地层叠置法、撞击坑大小频率分布统计法、撞击坑形态法和月壤成熟度法;研究绝对年龄的方法有两种：样品的同位素测年法和月球成坑计年法。回顾了现用月球层序划分的形成及发展过程,在此基础上,提出了改善月球年代划分的建议,分别用冥月宙、古月宙和新月宙表示月球内动力地质作用为主的时期、内外动力地质作用共同作用的时期和外动力地质作用为主的时期。推荐以南极艾肯盆地的形成为界线,将前酒海纪划分为前艾肯纪和艾肯纪,分别表示月球内动力地质作用为主的演化期和内外动力地质作用并重的演化初期。这种改进后的“三宙六纪”的月球年代划分既可以形成逻辑上更符合月球动力学演化过程的月球年代划分,同时又有助于开展在月球背面的地质研究。     

基于多源数据的月球大地构造纲要图编制: 以LQ-4地区为例

月球表面的地质构造要素主要包括环形构造、线性构造、地体构造及大型盆地构造等。月球大地构造纲要图从物质组成、构造要素、构造单元上对月表的构造状态进行全面的梳理、统计和分析。利用CE 1 CCD 2C像数据、LROC宽视角影像数据、CE 1 IIM 2C干涉成像光谱仪数据、Clementine紫外可见光影像数据、LOLA激光高度计数据识别月球表面各类矿物组分、线形构造、环形构造、火山构造和穹窿构造以及确定构造要素和构造单元的时代、古老撞击坑和大型盆地边界以及对月球表面撞击坑形态、大小、分布、密度及月球断裂和环形影像解译,充分认识月表基本情况,精细划分月表构造地貌单元,综合利用上述分析结果与国际上研究的进展,确定大地构造区划的基本原则,厘定月表重大构造事件与演化序列。依据岩石、月壤、构造地貌与构造形迹的综合分类,拟定大地构造区划的图例、图识规范,确定不同类型环形构造影像、线性构造影像、高地、盆地和月海等大地构造单元,进而编制大地构造区划图,并对重点区域构造形迹进行研究。虹湾区域(LQ 4)月球数字构造编图研究,充分借鉴国际行星地质编图的已有技术标准和规范,结合国内数字地质编图的技术标准和规范,建立了中国自己的月球与行星地质编图标准、规范和制图流程,也为最终完成月球大地构造区划提供地貌和构造方面的基础信息。     

Chemical composition of lunar meteorites and the lunar crust

The paper presents the first analyses of major and trace elements in 19 lunar meteorites newly found in Oman. These and literature data were used to assay the composition of highland, mare, and transitional (highland-mare interface) regions of the lunar surface. The databank used in the research comprises data on 44 meteorites weighing 11 kg in total, which likely represent 26 individual falls. Our data demonstrate that the lunar highland crust should be richer in Ca and Al but poorer in mafic and incompatible elements than it was thought based on studying lunar samples and the first orbital data. The Ir concentration in the highland crust and the analysis of lunar crater population suggest that most lunar impactites were formed by a single major impact event, which predetermined the geochemical characteristics of these rocks. Lunar mare regions should be dominated by low-Ti basalts, which are, however, enriched in LREEs compared to those sampled by lunar missions. The typical material of mare-highland interface zones can contain KREEP and magnesian VLT basalts. The composition of the lunar highland crust deduced from the chemistry of lunar meteorites does not contradict the model of the lunar magma ocean, but the average composition of lunar mare meteorites is inconsistent with this concept and suggests assimilation of KREEP material by basaltic magmas. The newly obtained evaluations of the composition of the highland crust confirm that the Moon can be enriched in refractory elements and depleted in volatile and siderophile elements.     

Geochemistry, petrology and ages of the lunar meteorites Kalahari 008 and 009: New constraints on early lunar evolution

Kalahari 008 and 009 are two lunar meteorites that were found close to each other in Botswana. Kalahari 008 is a typical lunar anorthositic breccia; Kalahari 009 a monomict breccia with basaltic composition and mineralogy. Based on minor and trace elements Kalahari 009 is classified as VLT (very-low-Ti) mare basalt with extremely low contents of incompatible elements, including the REE. The Lu-Hf data define an age of 4286 ± 95 Ma indicating that Kalahari 009 is one of the oldest known basalt samples from the Moon. It provides evidence for lunar basalt volcanism prior to 4.1 Ga (pre-Nectarian) and may represent the first sample from a cryptomare. The very radiogenic initial ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf (εHf = +12.9 ± 4.6), the low REE, Th and Ti concentrations indicate that Kalahari 009 formed from re-melting of mantle material that had undergone strong incompatible trace element depletion early in lunar history. This unusually depleted composition points toward a hitherto unsampled basalt source region for the lunar interior that may represent a new depleted endmember source for low-Ti mare basalt volcanism. Apparently, the Moon became chemically very heterogeneous at an early stage in its history and different cumulate sources are responsible for the diverse mare basalt types.Evidence that Kalahari 008 and 009 may be paired includes the similar fayalite content of their olivine, the identical initial Hf isotope composition, the exceptionally low exposure ages of both rocks and the fact that they were found close to each other. Since cryptomaria are covered by highland ejecta, it is possible that these rocks are from the boundary area, where basalt deposits are covered by highland ejecta. The concentrations of cosmogenic radionuclides and trapped noble gases are unusually low in both rocks, although Kalahari 008 contains slightly higher concentrations. A likely reason for this difference is that Kalahari 008 is a polymict breccia containing a briefly exposed regolith, while Kalahari 009 is a monomict brecciated rock that may never have been at the surface of the Moon.Altogether, the compositions of Kalahari 008 and 009 permit new insight into early lunar evolution, as both meteorites sample lunar reservoirs hitherto unsampled by spacecraft missions. The very low Th and REE content of Kalahari 009 as well as the depletion in Sm and the lack of a KREEP-like signature in Kalahari 008 point to a possible source far from the influence of the Procellarum-KREEP Terrane, possibly the lunar farside.