一个集合海浪预报系统及其初步试验

使用集合天气预报系统的多个成员的风场预报来驱动海浪模式WAVEWATCH Ⅲ, 计算出含多个成员的海浪预报场,并相应开发出各海浪要素的集合预报产品,如集合平均、离散度、集合概率等,建立了一个集合海浪数值预报系统。使用该系统进行了2007年9—10月为期两个月的预报试验,利用太平洋和大西洋海域范围的浮标观测资料对系统的预报水平的初步检验分析显示,该集合海浪预报方法能够有效地将传统的确定性预报扩展到概率预报领域,且集合平均的预报水平要优于单一的确定性预报,采用集合预报方法可以提供单纯确定性预报所不能够提供的额外信息,具有较好的应用潜力。     

集合预报产品在江苏省暴雨预报中的应用评估

利用2011—2015年6—8月TIGGE(THORPEX Interactive Grand Global Ensemble)数据集中欧洲中期天气预报中心(ECMWF,以下简称EC)的集合降水预报数据和江苏省70个基本站逐日24 h(20时至次日20时)降水数据,通过大量暴雨样本系统检验和评估了EC集合预报及多种后处理释用产品对江苏暴雨的预报能力。结果表明:作为集合预报的初级产品,集合平均对暴雨的预报存在明显的漏报率,TS预报评分尚不及EC确定性预报;集合预报不同成员间对暴雨的预报技巧差异大,其最优成员组合的预报能力显著优于EC确定性预报,表明集合预报具有较大的应用潜力;在多种集合预报后处理释用技术中,最大值、最优百分位、降水偏差订正频率匹配法、概率预报、集合异常预报法和杜-周排序法(最大值法)的平均TS评分均较高,超过10%,其次90%分位数、融合、融合-概率匹配和杜-周排序法(集合平均或中位值法)的预报效果也均优于EC确定性预报。集合中位值、概率匹配方法对江苏暴雨的预报评分低于集合平均预报,在暴雨预报上的参考价值相对较低。该评估结果进一步加深了对各集合预报产品区域暴雨预报能力的认识,为预报员更直接快速地选取有效的集合预报产品提供参考。     

ECMWF降水相态预报产品(PTYPE)应用和检验

运用我国2016—2018年三个冬半年(10月至次年3月)地面2515个站的天气现象观测资料,对ECMWF(European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts)的降水相态预报产品(PTYPE)(分为雨、雨夹雪、雪和冻雨四类)进行了系统性的检验评估,包括细网格确定性模式预报产品和集合预报系统概率预报产品。结果显示,ECMWF的确定性预报产品对四类降水相态的正确率普遍达到90%以上,对降雨和降雪的TS评分也较高,冻雨次之,雨夹雪的TS评分较低,预报能力有限。确定性模式对我国雨雪分界线的预报,普遍存在短期位置略偏南、中期随时效延长越来越偏北的误差特点,且对雨夹雪的预报范围明显偏小,对冻雨的预报范围明显偏大。集合预报系统从概率的角度一定程度上弥补了确定性模式的上述误差。对概率预报的检验结果显示,集合预报系统降雨概率普遍偏低,降雪概率短期偏高、中期偏低,而雨夹雪和冻雨概率普遍偏低,但是都有一定的预报技巧。集合预报系统相对于确定性模式的优势,降雨体现在较小花费损失比事件的预报上,降雪体现在较大花费损失比事件的预报上。对雨夹雪和冻雨,相对于确定性模式,集合预报系统体现出了显著的优势,尤其是冻雨,集合预报系统的优势更加明显。     

重庆风暴尺度集合预报系统降水预报性能分析

本文利用重庆风暴尺度集合预报系统业务存档的2017年8月1～31日逐日08时起报的模式预报资料及相应的观测资料对该系统的降水预报进行了检验评估及综合分析,综合各种检验结果,总体而言:该系统集合平均和概率匹配平均等集合预报产品相对于控制预报表现出了较明显的优势;小雨和中雨量级降水集合平均的TS评分优于概率匹配平均;大雨和暴雨量级降水概率匹配平均的TS评分优于集合平均;各预报时效的Talagrand分布均表现出实况落在第11个概率区间的概率明显高于其他概率区间,需要在今后的科研和业务中加以关注;Outlier评分介于0.12～0.26;降水概率预报检验方面,各个降水量级的预报失误概率Brier评分和相对作用特征技巧评分AROC均较为理想。总体而言,该系统在降水预报方面相对于单一的确定性预报而言表现出了一定的优势。      

ENSO集合预报系统的检验评价

讨论了一个热带太平洋海气耦合集合预报系统集合预报的检验问题。该集合预报系统模式为一个中等复杂程度的耦合模式,其中大气部分为统计模式,海洋部分为动力模式。初始扰动利用集合Kalman滤波同化得到,模式误差扰动由一个一阶马尔可夫随机微分方程生成,预报集合样本为100个。利用1995~2005年的观测资料进行了确定性预报检验,包括相关系数和均方根误差。在概率预报检验方面,包括Talagrand概率分布、离散度、Brier评分(BS)、命中率以及空报率的统计检验,并且根据检验结果对预报系统进行了初步评价。确定性检验表明,集合样本均值的预报水平在热带中太平洋区域要高于热带东太平洋和沿岸区域。同时概率预报检验结果表明,集合预报系统有较高的概率预报技巧,对确定性预报是一个完善和补充。     

黄淮地区夏季日降水分区概率预报方法研究

利用我国黄淮地区1961—2010年50年6—8月的日降水资料,采用REOF和t检验的方法,将中国黄淮地区夏季降水分成Ⅰ—Ⅴ区。5个区域进行差异性t检验表明5个区域之间（彼此）差异显著,说明了区域划分的正确性。在此基础上利用1999—2007年6—8月站点日降水资料以及CFSv2模式后预报的日降水资料建立了5个区域内共5个代表站点的夏季日降水概率预报方程,并进行了确定性、概率性预报检验和业务试用检验。对各区域内5个代表站日降水量的确定性预报检验表明：Logistic回归降水概率预报方程的TS评分要高于CFSv2模式预报和T213的集合预报平均,空报率也低于CFSv2模式预报和T213集合预报平均,但是漏报率却略高。各区域代表站日降水量的概率预报Brier评分检验表明：Brier评分均不超过0.2,大大低于T213集合预报所得概率预报的Brier评分分值,说明本文Logistic回归方程的概率预报较为可靠。Brier技巧评分表明：Logistic回归降水概率预报方程各站的BSS技巧评分都大于0.0,说明各站的预报技巧高于检验样本气候概率的预报技巧,且高于T213集合预报的Brier技巧评分,说明在分区基础上建立Logistic回归降水概率预报方程的方法是有预报意义的。     

基于ECMWF集合预报产品的降水相态客观预报方法

基于欧洲中期天气预报中心（European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts,ECMWF）集合预报系统的降水相态产品（precipitation type,PTYPE）,分别以HSS评分最优、TS评分最优和频率偏差最优为标准,运用最优概率阈值法,生成雨、雨夹雪、雪和冻雨4类降水相态的确定性预报产品,并与ECMWF集合预报系统控制成员及细网格模式确定性预报进行对比。最优概率阈值显示:3种最优标准下,不同相态降水最优概率阈值不同,但冻雨和降雪最优概率阈值均最大,为40%~80%,雨夹雪最优概率阈值最小,约为10%,三者最优概率阈值均随预报时效延长而减小;降雨最优概率阈值为7%~25%,随预报时效延长而增大。对比检验结果显示:最优概率阈值法明显提高了降水相态预报能力,且以HSS评分最优时预报效果最佳;最优概率阈值法有效减小冻雨空报,同时显著改善降雨和降雪预报的频率偏差和TS评分,对雨夹雪预报改进效果有限。     

东亚地区冬季地面气温延伸期概率预报研究

利用TIGGE资料中的ECMWF、NCEP、UKMO三个中心集合预报系统以及由此构成的多中心集合预报系统所提供的地面2 m气温10~15 d延伸期集合预报产品,建立贝叶斯模式平均(Bayesian Model Averaging,BMA)概率预报模型,对东亚地区冬季地面气温进行延伸期概率预报研究。采用距平相关系数、均方根误差、布莱尔评分、等级概率评分等指标分别对BMA确定性结果与概率预报进行评估。结果表明,BMA方法明显地改进了原始集合预报结果,预报技巧优于原始集合预报,且多中心BMA预报优于单中心BMA预报,最佳滑动训练期取35 d。BMA预报为气温的延伸期概率预报提供了更合理的概率分布,定量描述了预报的不确定性。     

“集合统计量集成法”在湖北短期暴雨预报中的应用研究

利用2013年11月—2014年11月ECMWF全球集合预报的51个成员降水预报资料和湖北省78个国家气象站逐日降水实况,对集合平均值、分位值、概率匹配平均值、众数(Mode值)等10种集合统计量在湖北省不同预报分区内的降水预报效果分别进行检验评估。在此基础上,采用在不同降水量级上选取TS评分最优的集合统计量的原则,设计出适用湖北降水预报的最佳集合统计量集成方案,并检验了该方法在2015年和2016年6—8月湖北降水预报的应用效果。结果表明:将集合统计量集成法应用于湖北降水预报时,集合统计量集成方案应随着预报分区的改变而改变;改进后的ECMWF集合统计量集成方案对湖北72 h内大雨及以上降水预报的TS评分均有不同程度的提高,且空报率和漏报率总体上有所降低;与ECMWF确定性预报相比,ECMWF集合统计量集成预报产品对湖北24 h内各降水量级的预报均优于ECMWF确定性预报,且对湖北72 h内的暴雨预报准确率均高于ECMWF确定性预报。     

天气预报技巧和价值的关系

利用一个简单的花费-损失比模型介绍了天气预报系统的技巧和其对用户的价值之间的关系。以欧洲中期天气预报中心的集合预报系统的控制预报和集合预报为例，对确定性预报和概率预报的情况分别进行了说明。结果表明，有技巧的天气预报系统只有在用产的花费-损矢比(C／L)在某一数值区间内时对用户才是有价值的。通过对比分析集合预报系统EPS概率预报和确定性预报的相对经济价值曲线，说明概率预报系统比一个与其质量相当的确定性预报系统具有较大的价值优势，而根据C／L选择最佳概率阈值对于实现其最大预报价值尤为重要。     

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS DATA OF AIR–SEA TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AND ITS VARIATION ACROSS SOUTH CHINA SEA IN THE PAST 35 YEARS

Using the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set(ICOADS) and ERA-Interim data, spatial distributions of air-sea temperature difference(ASTD) in the South China Sea(SCS) for the past 35 years are compared,and variations of spatial and temporal distributions of ASTD in this region are addressed using empirical orthogonal function decomposition and wavelet analysis methods. The results indicate that both ICOADS and ERA-Interim data can reflect actual distribution characteristics of ASTD in the SCS, but values of ASTD from the ERA-Interim data are smaller than those of the ICOADS data in the same region. In addition, the ASTD characteristics from the ERA-Interim data are not obvious inshore. A seesaw-type, north-south distribution of ASTD is dominant in the SCS; i.e., a positive peak in the south is associated with a negative peak in the north in November, and a negative peak in the south is accompanied by a positive peak in the north during April and May. Interannual ASTD variations in summer or autumn are decreasing. There is a seesaw-type distribution of ASTD between Beibu Bay and most of the SCS in summer, and the center of large values is in the Nansha Islands area in autumn. The ASTD in the SCS has a strong quasi-3a oscillation period in all seasons, and a quasi-11 a period in winter and spring. The ASTD is positively correlated with the Nio3.4 index in summer and autumn but negatively correlated in spring and winter.     

CHARACTERISTICS AND TRENDS OF CLIMATIC EXTREMES IN CHINA DURING 1959–2014

The spatial and temporal variations of daily maximum temperature(Tmax), daily minimum temperature(Tmin), daily maximum precipitation(Pmax) and daily maximum wind speed(WSmax) were examined in China using Mann-Kendall test and linear regression method. The results indicated that for China as a whole, Tmax, Tmin and Pmax had significant increasing trends at rates of 0.15℃ per decade, 0.45℃ per decade and 0.58 mm per decade,respectively, while WSmax had decreased significantly at 1.18 m·s~(-1) per decade during 1959—2014. In all regions of China, Tmin increased and WSmax decreased significantly. Spatially, Tmax increased significantly at most of the stations in South China(SC), northwestern North China(NC), northeastern Northeast China(NEC), eastern Northwest China(NWC) and eastern Southwest China(SWC), and the increasing trends were significant in NC, SC, NWC and SWC on the regional average. Tmin increased significantly at most of the stations in China, with notable increase in NEC, northern and southeastern NC and northwestern and eastern NWC. Pmax showed no significant trend at most of the stations in China, and on the regional average it decreased significantly in NC but increased in SC, NWC and the mid-lower Yangtze River valley(YR). WSmax decreased significantly at the vast majority of stations in China, with remarkable decrease in northern NC, northern and central YR, central and southern SC and in parts of central NEC and western NWC. With global climate change and rapidly economic development, China has become more vulnerable to climatic extremes and meteorological disasters, so more strategies of mitigation and/or adaptation of climatic extremes,such as environmentally-friendly and low-cost energy production systems and the enhancement of engineering defense measures are necessary for government and social publics.     

IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC LOW-FREQUENCY OSCILLATION ON THE IMMIGRATION OF NILAPARVATA LUGENS(STL) IN HUNAN AND JIANGXI PROVINCES

Various features of the atmospheric environment affect the number of migratory insects, besides their initial population. However, little is known about the impact of atmospheric low-frequency oscillation(10 to 90 days) on insect migration. A case study was conducted to ascertain the influence of low-frequency atmospheric oscillation on the immigration of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens(Stl), in Hunan and Jiangxi provinces. The results showed the following:(1) The number of immigrating N. lugens from April to June of 2007 through 2016 mainly exhibited a periodic oscillation of 10 to 20 days.(2) The 10-20 d low-frequency number of immigrating N. lugens was significantly correlated with a low-frequency wind field and a geopotential height field at 850 h Pa.(3) During the peak phase of immigration, southwest or south winds served as a driving force and carried N. lugens populations northward, and when in the back of the trough and the front of the ridge, the downward airflow created a favorable condition for N. lugens to land in the study area. In conclusion, the northward migration of N. lugens was influenced by a low-frequency atmospheric circulation based on the analysis of dynamics. This study was the first research connecting atmospheric low-frequency oscillation to insect migration.     

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC CONDITIONS BEFORE THE OCCURRENCE OF TWO TYPES OF EL NIO EVENTS

The atmospheric and oceanic conditions before the onset of EP El Ni?o and CP El Ni?o in nearly 30 years are compared and analyzed by using 850 hPa wind, 20℃ isotherm depth, sea surface temperature and the Wheeler and Hendon index. The results are as follows: In the western equatorial Pacific, the occurrence of the anomalously strong westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Its intensity is far stronger than that of the CP El Ni?o. Two months before the El Ni?o, the anomaly westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o have extended to the eastern Pacific region, while the westerly wind anomaly of the CP El Ni?o can only extend to the west of the dateline three months before the El Ni?o and later stay there. Unlike the EP El Ni?o, the CP El Ni?o is always associated with easterly wind anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific before its onset. The thermocline depth anomaly of the EP El Ni?o can significantly move eastward and deepen. In addition, we also find that the evolution of thermocline is ahead of the development of the sea surface temperature for the EP El Ni?o. The strong MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o in the western and central Pacific is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Measured by the standard deviation of the zonal wind square, the intensity of MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o is significantly greater than that of the CP El Ni?o before the onset of El Ni?o.     

Could the Recent Taal Volcano Eruption Trigger an El Ni?o and Lead to Eurasian Warming?

正The Taal Volcano in Luzon is one of the most active and dangerous volcanoes of the Philippines. A recent eruption occurred on 12 January 2020(Fig. 1a), and this volcano is still active with the occurrence of volcanic earthquakes. The eruption has become a deep concern worldwide, not only for its damage on local society, but also for potential hazardous consequences on the Earth's climate and environment.     

ANALYSIS OF “BIMODAL PATTERN” STORM ACTIVITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAY OF BENGAL

Storms that occur at the Bay of Bengal (BoB) are of a bimodal pattern, which is different from that of the other sea areas. By using the NCEP, SST and JTWC data, the causes of the bimodal pattern storm activity of the BoB are diagnosed and analyzed in this paper. The result shows that the seasonal variation of general atmosphere circulation in East Asia has a regulating and controlling impact on the BoB storm activity, and the “bimodal period” of the storm activity corresponds exactly to the seasonal conversion period of atmospheric circulation. The minor wind speed of shear spring and autumn contributed to the storm, which was a crucial factor for the generation and occurrence of the “bimodal pattern” storm activity in the BoB. The analysis on sea surface temperature (SST) shows that the SSTs of all the year around in the BoB area meet the conditions required for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). However, the SSTs in the central area of the bay are higher than that of the surrounding areas in spring and autumn, which facilitates the occurrence of a “two-peak” storm activity pattern. The genesis potential index (GPI) quantifies and reflects the environmental conditions for the generation of the BoB storms. For GPI, the intense low-level vortex disturbance in the troposphere and high-humidity atmosphere are the sufficient conditions for storms, while large maximum wind velocity of the ground vortex radius and small vertical wind shear are the necessary conditions of storms.     

LOW-FREQUENCY CIRCULATION AND EXTENDED-RANGE FORECAST IN CONNECTION WITH AUTUMN EXTREME HEAVY RAINFALL PROCESS IN HAINAN

Observed daily precipitation data from the National Meteorological Observatory in Hainan province and daily data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis-2 dataset from 1981 to 2014 are used to analyze the relationship between Hainan extreme heavy rainfall processes in autumn (referred to as EHRPs) and 10–30 d low-frequency circulation. Based on the key low-frequency signals and the NCEP Climate Forecast System Version 2 (CFSv2) model forecasting products, a dynamical-statistical method is established for the extended-range forecast of EHRPs. The results suggest that EHRPs have a close relationship with the 10–30 d low-frequency oscillation of 850 hPa zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north, and that they basically occur during the trough phase of the low-frequency oscillation of zonal wind. The latitudinal propagation of the low-frequency wave train in the middle-high latitudes and the meridional propagation of the low-frequency wave train along the coast of East Asia contribute to the ‘north high (cold), south low (warm)’ pattern near Hainan Island, which results in the zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north reaching its trough, consequently leading to EHRPs. Considering the link between low-frequency circulation and EHRPs, a low-frequency wave train index (LWTI) is defined and adopted to forecast EHRPs by using NCEP CFSv2 forecasting products. EHRPs are predicted to occur during peak phases of LWTI with value larger than 1 for three or more consecutive forecast days. Hindcast experiments for EHRPs in 2015–2016 indicate that EHRPs can be predicted 8–24 d in advance, with an average period of validity of 16.7 d.     

AN ATTRIBUTION ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION IN THE BEIJING–TIANJIN–HEBEI REGION UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

Based on the measurements obtained at 64 national meteorological stations in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region between 1970 and 2013, the potential evapotranspiration (ET0) in this region was estimated using the Penman–Monteith equation and its sensitivity to maximum temperature (Tmax), minimum temperature (Tmin), wind speed (Vw), net radiation (Rn) and water vapor pressure (Pwv) was analyzed, respectively. The results are shown as follows. (1) The climatic elements in the BTH region underwent significant changes in the study period. Vw and Rn decreased significantly, whereas Tmin, Tmax and Pwv increased considerably. (2) In the BTH region, ET0 also exhibited a significant decreasing trend, and the sensitivity of ET0 to the climatic elements exhibited seasonal characteristics. Of all the climatic elements, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv in the fall and winter and Rn in the spring and summer. On the annual scale, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv, followed by Rn, Vw, Tmax and Tmin. In addition, the sensitivity coefficient of ET0 with respect to Pwv had a negative value for all the areas, indicating that increases in Pwv can prevent ET0 from increasing. (3) The sensitivity of ET0 to Tmin and Tmax was significantly lower than its sensitivity to other climatic elements. However, increases in temperature can lead to changes in Pwv and Rn. The temperature should be considered the key intrinsic climatic element that has caused the "evaporation paradox" phenomenon in the BTH region.     

Revisiting the Concentration Observations and Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Ammonia

正While China’s Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan on particulate matter since 2013 has reduced sulfate significantly, aerosol ammonium nitrate remains high in East China. As the high nitrate abundances are strongly linked with ammonia, reducing ammonia emissions is becoming increasingly important to improve the air quality of China. Although satellite data provide evidence of substantial increases in atmospheric ammonia concentrations over major agricultural regions, long-term surface observation of ammonia concentrations are sparse. In addition, there is still no consensus on