GRAPES NOAH-LSM陆面模式水文过程的改进及试验研究

土壤含水量的计算影响着陆面过程的能量平衡和水量平衡,是陆面模式的核心计算要素之一。目前,GRAPES_Meso模式采用的NOAH-LSM(Noah-Land Surface Model)陆面模式既不能有效地表达径流产源面积的变动情况,也不能完整描述水文循环过程。本次试验针对以上问题对其进行了改进:(1)加入蓄水容量曲线,考虑网格内产流面积的变化及土壤含水量的不均匀性;(2)加入汇流模式,以考虑水平二维水分再分配,提高模式对径流和流量模拟能力。选取2008年8月至9月降水进行模拟试验,研究陆面水循环过程对近地面气象要素的影响。结果表明:改进后的模式模拟土壤湿度、2 m温度等近地面气象要素更接近观测值,并最终对降水量以及降水落区也产生了一定的影响。     

区域气候模式中径流计算方案的数值试验

采用由曼宁方程推导而来的动力波方程来改进陆面模式BATS中的径流计算方案，并将改进径流方案后的BA偈模式应用到区域气候模式RegCM2中。利用1998年6—8月T106资料做边界场，对改进后的区域气候模式在中国东部地区进行检验。模拟结果表明，改进后的方案在夏季6—8月内模拟的径流值达到80—500mm左右，较原方案模拟的径流量（30—80mm）更加接近径流实况（50—500mm），体现了径流的大尺度平流效应。取单站（武汉）的模拟结果与原模式进行比较，发现模拟场的平均气温与实况场的误差较原模式减小了0．66℃，几次明显的降水过程也有很好的模拟。文中还分析了气温、降水、土壤含水量、蒸发等量的模拟情况。     

SHAW模式的改进及其在黄土高原半干旱区的模拟研究

陆面过程模拟研究中的一个关键问题是如何准确的计算陆气间能量交换,但现有的陆面过程模式模拟的湍流通量与观测值间仍然存在较大偏差,因此改进湍流通量的参数化方案对于提高陆面过程模式模拟能力有重要意义。本研究通过改进陆面过程模式SHAW中的热力粗糙度方案,以及引入干表层蒸发方案,以期改善湍流通量的模拟能力。在此基础上利用黄土高原半干旱区SACOL站观测资料,进行模式改进前后的单点模拟对比试验,研究其参数化方案改进对陆面过程模拟的影响。结果表明:改进后的SHAW模式能够合理地模拟黄土高原半干旱区陆面特征的变化趋势,模拟值与观测值偏差较小。与原来的SHAW模式模拟结果相比,改进后的SHAW_MOD模式显著提高了湍流通量的模拟能力,并改善了净辐射和深层土壤温度的模拟,但对土壤湿度的改进并不明显,这可能与土壤内部水热传输过程及相关参数化方案有关,还有待做进一步研究。     

CLM4.0土壤水分传输方案改进在青藏高原陆面过程模拟中的效应

利用2010年5月25日-12月31日玛曲高寒草原的气象观测资料和陆面过程模式(CLM4.0)对玛曲高寒草原陆面过程进行了数值模拟。通过评估模式的模拟性能、模式对含砂量的敏感程度以及模式土壤水分传输方案改进对青藏高原地区陆面过程模拟的影响,发现CLM4.0模式能较好地再现观测站土壤温、湿度、地表辐射、湍流通量等的变化趋势,但土壤温度模拟偏低,感热通量模拟偏大;含砂量增多会减弱土壤的持水能力,使得夏季感热通量增大而潜热通量减小;CLM4.0模式中新引入的有机质对土壤温、湿度模拟均有重要影响,Richards方程和径流计算的修改则对土壤含水量模拟影响较大,这对其他陆面模式的改进具有一定的指导意义。     

初冬青藏高原冻土过程的数值模拟

利用改进了的加进NCAR陆面过程(LSM)的NCAR MM5大气模式中的土壤冻融过程参数化方案和2001年10月2～30日的NCEP再分析资料,对青藏铁路沿线区域进行数值模拟试验。在新方案中改进了土壤径流和土壤渗透影响土壤层的水文过程,增加了对土壤含冰量的求解,较真实地反映了土壤的冻融过程。模拟结果表明,改进土壤冻融过程方案后,模式对地温、地面通量的模拟有一定的改进,能够反映土壤冻结初期陆面要素场的变化。     

基于GRAPES的气象-水文模式在淮河流域的一次试验

Global-regional assimilation and prediction system(GRAPES)模式为中国气象局于2000年开始组织研究开发的数值预报系统,GRAPES_Meso模式是其区域中尺度数值预报系统版。GRAPES_Meso中的陆面模式选取的是Noah-Land Surface Model(NOAH-LSM)模式。NOAH-LSM陆面模式选取Simple Water Balance(SWB)对陆面水文过程进行描述。SWB是一个简单水量平衡模型,不能完整地描述陆面水文过程,特别是对径流的模拟存在不足。随着GRAPES_Meso模式不断的发展,对预报能力的要求逐渐提高,对其陆面模式中产流过程的描述也需要进一步的研究。本文中所应用的改进陆面水文过程的NOAH-LSM陆面模式,借鉴了水文模型的思想,利用蓄水容量曲线描述单元网格内产流面积的变化,并在模式中增加Muskingum汇流模块,完整陆面模式水文循环。将原GRAPES模式和改进陆面水文过程的GRAPES模式分别与新安江模型进行单向耦合,选取模式TS评分相差不大的试验流域——淮河流域上游控制站王家坝站,进行流量模拟对比。从试验结果可以看出,改进后的模式在洪量相对误差、洪峰相对误差、确定性系数上均优于原模式,并为未来利用水文模型对降水落区检验进行了探索性研究。     

陆面过程模式CLASS径流模拟的改进和应用

针对陆面过程模式CLASS(Canadian Land Surface Scheme)产流模拟方面的不足,提出考虑壤中流产流机制的产流模拟方案。利用淮河流域能量和水分循环试验(HUBEX)资料,在史灌河流域对改进前后的模型进行了对比试验。结果表明,产流模拟改进方案大大提高了CLASS的径流模拟能力,同时改善了模式对土壤含水量的模拟。     

可用于陆面过程模型的地形指数水文模型中简化参数化方案的研究

在全球气候系统模型中,陆面水文过程对提高模拟精度有显著作用.土壤水分空间非均匀分布对于蒸发和径流的计算以及能量在潜热和感热之间的分配具有重要的影响,但现有的多数陆面过程模式未能考虑土壤水分水平非均匀性的影响.地形指数模型以其较好的物理基础、参数少、计算量小,且能考虑地形变化对土壤水分非均匀分布影响等优点,使其有潜力模拟陆面过程中水分过程分布非均匀二维特性.目前地形指数水文模型已被推荐应用于陆面过程模式(Land surface models,LSMs)中以改进对陆面水文过程的模拟能力.在地形指数模型中,数据的空间分辨率、河道的起始临界值、非饱和区域的分区和空间各点的坡度等因子不同的确定,都能对模拟结果产生重要影响,对它们如何合理地给定,既不降低模型精度,又能省时、省资源是十分重要的.本研究通过大量的敏感性模拟试验,较系统地探讨上述参数不同的确定方案对流域水量平衡模拟结果的影响.主要结论有:(1)将流域按地形指数值大小分为16块与仅区分饱和区与非饱和区或仅区分饱和区、较湿润区和较干区3块模拟结果相差不大,因此将地形指数模型应用于陆面模式时仅区分饱和区与非饱和区或区分饱和区、较湿润区和较干区3块这种简化方案也许是一种可行的选择;(2)不考虑坡度会扭曲水量平衡各要素的计算,用一个平均坡度替代实际坡度的办法就会有比较接近了实际坡度的结果.因此,LSM模型中一维均匀的网格做法应该改进,但太细致的坡度取法也许没必要.以上结论可为今后发展用于陆面模式的大尺度水文模型提供依据.     

一个区域地气耦合柱状模式的发展及其对半干旱区的模拟

在现有的区域气候模式的基础上构建了用于研究地气耦合模拟的区域柱状模式,其中包括了详细的物理过程,可以作为研究半干旱区地气相互作用过程的工具。通过区域柱状模式与不同陆面模式的耦合,检验了不同陆面模式在非耦合和耦合两种情况下对半干旱区的模拟性能。结果表明,陆面模式在耦合后对感热的模拟偏差放大,而潜热的模拟效果得到了改进,不同的陆面模式对区域柱状模式的模拟性能影响较大,耦合了CoLM后的区域柱状模式对地表气象要素的模拟得到了较大的改进。     

NCAR_CLM系列模式对全球近50 a陆面状况的模拟及其比较分析

基于普林斯顿大学1948-2006年3h一次、1 °×1 °空间分辨率的全球陆面驱动数据,利用NCAR系列陆面模式CLM3.0、CLM3.5、CLM4.0,分别对全球近50 a的陆面状况进行了offline模拟试验.在此基础上,对比分析了不同版本模式对全球土壤温度、土壤湿度、地表感热、潜热和地表径流气候态的模拟结果,揭示了不同版本模式对全球陆面变量模拟的差异及主要特征.结果表明:1)CLM系列模式模拟的土壤温度、湿度在全球范围内存在一定差异.与CLM4.0相比,CLM3.0和CLM3.5模拟的1月、7月的浅层和深层土壤温度在北半球中高纬度存在明显的暖偏差.CLM3.0模拟的土壤湿度在北半球高纬地区均存在不同程度的偏湿,而在热带及中纬度地区则以偏干为主,尤其是对热带地区深层土壤湿度的模拟存在严重偏干的现象;相比之下,CLM3.5模拟的浅层土壤湿度仅在北半球高纬地区存在偏湿的现象;二者对深层土壤湿度的模拟差异较小.2)CLM系列模式模拟的地表能量通量和地表水文变量也存在较明显的差异.模式对潜热通量和感热通量的明显差异主要出现在热带地区,与CLM4.0相比,CLM3.0模拟的潜热(感热)通量总体偏小(大),而CLM3.5模拟的潜热(感热)通量以偏大(小)为主.CLM3.0模拟的地表径流在热带地区明显偏大,CLM3.5在一定程度上改善了上述区域径流偏大的问题,但过分低估了上述地区的地表径流.3)模式模拟结果的差异具有明显的季节变化和区域性特点.总体而言,CLM3.0对不同地区的土壤湿度和冠层蒸散的季节变化模拟都存在较大偏差,其模拟的土壤湿度明显偏低,而对冠层蒸腾作用在冠层蒸散过程中所做的贡献估计不足;CLM3.5和CLM4.0对上述结果有了较明显的改进.对于其他陆面因子的季节变化而言,CLM3.0的模拟能力也存在一定程度的不足,而CLM3.5和CLM4.0的模拟结果则更为合理.     

Impact of the North Atlantic Oscillation on Middle Eastern Climate and Streamflow

Interannual to decadal variations in Middle Eastern temperature, precipitationand streamflow reflect the far-field influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), a dominant mode of Atlantic sector climate variability. Using a new sea surface temperature (SST) based index of the NAO and availablestreamflow data from five Middle Eastern rivers, we show that the first principal component of December through March streamflow variability reflects changes in the NAO. However, Middle East rivers have two primary flooding periods.The first is rainfall-driven runoff from December through March, regulated on interannual to decadal timescales by the NAO as reflected in local precipitation and temperature.The second period, from April through June, reflects spring snowmelt and contributes in excess of 50% of annual runoff.This period, known locally as the khamsin, displays no significantNAO connections and a less direct relationship with local climatic factors, suggesting that streamflow variability during this period reflects land-cover change, possibly related to agriculture and hydropower generation, and snowmelt.     

土地利用变化对长江流域气候及水文过程影响的敏感性研究

使用区域气候模式(RegCM3)和大尺度汇流模型(LRM), 研究土地利用/植被覆盖变化对长江流域气候及水文过程的影响。RegCM3嵌套于欧洲数值预报中心 (ECMWF) 再分析资料ERA40, 分别进行了中国区域在实际植被和理想植被分布情况下两个各15年 (1987～2001年) 时间长度的积分试验。随后, RegCM3 两个试验的输出径流结果分别用来驱动LRM, 研究土地利用/植被覆盖变化对长江流域河川径流的影响。研究结果指出, 中国当代土地利用变化对长江流域降水、蒸散发、径流深及河川径流等水文气候要素的改变较大, 对气温的改变并不明显。土地利用变化引起长江干流河川径流量在夏季(6～8月)有所增加, 并且越向下游增加幅度越大, 其中大通站径流量增加接近15%。总体而言, 土地利用改变加剧了长江流域夏季水循环过程, 使得夏季长江中下游地区降水增多, 径流增大。     

Assessing streamflow sensitivity to variations in glacier mass balance

We examine long-term streamflow and mass balance data from two Alaskan glaciers located in climatically distinct basins: Gulkana Glacier, a continental glacier located in the Alaska Range, and Wolverine Glacier, a maritime glacier located in the Kenai Mountains. Over the 1966–2011 study interval, both glaciers lost mass, primarily as a result of summer warming, and streamflow increased in both basins. We estimate total glacier runoff via summer mass balance and quantify the fraction of runoff related to annual mass imbalances. In both climates, annual (net) mass balance contributes, on average, less than 20 % of total streamflow, substantially less than the fraction related to summer mass loss (>50 %), which occurs even in years of glacier growth. The streamflow fraction related to changes in annual balance increased significantly only in the continental environment. In the maritime climate, where deep winter snowpacks and frequent rain events drive consistently high runoff, the magnitude of this streamflow fraction was small and highly variable, precluding detection of any existing trend. Furthermore, our findings suggest that glacier mass change is likely to impact total basin water yield, timing of runoff and water quality in the continental environment. However, the impacts of maritime glacier change appear more likely to be limited to water quality and runoff timing.     

一个植物冠层物理传输和生理生长过程的多层模式

通过提出一个多层的植物冠层和土壤的模式,对冠层中辐射、热量、水汽和二氧化碳的传输等过程,光合、呼吸等生理过程以及土壤中水、热传输等过程进行了详细描述,并把物理过程与生理过程联系起来,实现了植被与大气的双向反馈;应用此模式于小麦生长期各主要过程的模拟,给出了与观测值一致的结果     

Implementation of a large‐scale variable velocity river flow routing algorithm in the Canadian Regional Climate Model (CRCM)

Abstract

Implementation and validation of a flow routing scheme for the North American domain of the Canadian Regional Climate Model (CRCM) is described. A variable velocity flow routing algorithm is used to transport runoff from the land surface to the continental edges and provide freshwater flux forcing for the oceans. The flow routing scheme uses Manning's equation to estimate flow velocities for river channels whose cross‐sections are assumed to be rectangular. Discretization of major North American river basins and their flow directions are obtained at the polar stereographic resolution of the CRCM using 5‐minute global river flow direction data as a template. In the absence of observation‐based gridded estimates of runoff, model runoff estimates from a global simulation of the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) hydrological model (forced with observationbased meteorological data) are used to validate the flow routing scheme. Model results show that the inclusion of flow routing improves the comparison with observation‐based streamflow estimates when compared to the unrouted runoff. Monthly comparison of simulated streamflow with observation‐based estimates, and basin‐wide averaged flow velocities, suggests that the flow routing scheme performs satisfactorily.     

Impacts of Systematic Precipitation Bias on Simulations of Water and Energy Balances in Northwest America

At high latitudes and in mountainous areas, evaluation and validation of water and energy flux simu-lations are greatly affected by systematic precipitation errors. These errors mainly come from topographic effects and undercatch of precipitation gauges. In this study, the Land Dynamics （LAD） land surface model is used to investigate impacts of systematic precipitation bias from topography and wind-blowing on water and energy flux simulation in Northwest America. The results show that topographic and wind adjustment reduced bias of streamflow simulations when compared with observed streamflow at 14 basins. These systematic biases resulted in a -50%-100% bias for runoff simulations, a -20%-20% bias for evapotranspiration, and a -40%-40% bias for sensible heat flux, subject to different locations and adjustments, when compared with the control run. Uncertain gauge adjustment leads to a 25% uncertainty for precipitation, a 20% 100% uncertainty for runoff simulation, a less-than-10% uncertainty for evapotranspiration, and a less-than-20% uncertainty for sensible heat flux.     

An Updated Coupled Model for Land-Atmosphere Interaction. Part II： Simulations of Biological Processes

In Part I, the authors succeeded in coupling the spectral atmospheric model （SAMIL_R42L9） developed at the State Key Laboratory of Numerical Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences （LASG/IAP/CAS） with the land surface model, Atmosphere-Vegetation-Interaction-Model （AVIM） and analyzed the climate basic state and land surface physical fluxes simulated by R42_AVIM. In this Part Ⅱ, we further evaluate the simulated results of the biological processes, including leaf area index （LAI）, biomass and net primary productivity （NPP） etc. Results indicate that R42_AVIM can simulate the global distribution of LAI and has good consistency with the monthly mean LAI provided by Max Planck Institute for Meteorology. The simulated biomass corresponds reasonably to the vegetation classifications. In addition, the simulated annual mean NPP has a consistent distribution with the data provided by IGBP and MODIS, and compares well with the work in literature. This land-atmosphere coupled model will offer a new experiment tool for the research on the two-way interaction between climate and biosphere, and the global terrestrial ecosystem carbon cycle.     

Evaluation of the hydrological components added to an atmospheric land-surface scheme

Summary Discharge from a small grassland catchment in Ireland is simulated with the atmospheric land-surface scheme SEWAB. Hydrological processes are parameterized to represent surface runoff and baseflow generation and soil moisture storage changes. Surface ponding and infiltration are explicitly described in order to account for the rapid response of streamflow to precipitation events. The annual discharge, the evapotranspiration and individual flood flows are accurately modelled. The simulation of soil moisture at various depths is close to the observations from time domain reflectometer measurements. An analysis of the significance of individual hydrological processes for discharge simulation from the small catchment found the ponding process to be essential for time periods of less than 12 hours. A depth dependent saturation hydraulic conductivity improves the simulations on all time scales. Received October 25, 2000/Revised February 16, 2001     

Towards closing the vertical water balance in Canadian atmospheric models: Coupling of the land surface scheme class with the distributed hydrological model watflood

Abstract

Second generation land surface schemes are the subject of much development activity among atmospheric modellers. This work is aimed at, among other things, improving the representation of the soil water balance in order to simulate, more properly, exchanges with the atmosphere and to permit the use of model output to generate streamflow for model validation. The Canadian development program is centred on CLASS, the Canadian Land Surface Scheme, developed at Environment Canada. This paper focuses on the improvement of hydrology in CLASS. This was accomplished by designing a two‐way interface to WATFLOOD, a distributed hydrologic model developed at the University of Waterloo. The two models share many features, which facilitated the coupling procedure.

The interface retains the three‐layer vertical moisture budget representation in CLASS but adds three horizontal runoff possibilities. Runoff from the surface water follows Manning's equation for overland flow. Interflow is generated from the near‐surface soil layer using a parametrization of Richard's equation and base flow is produced by Darcian flow from the bottom of layer 3. An approximation of the internal topography of grid elements is used to supply horizontal gradients for the runoff components.

Tests are in progress in four Canadian study areas. Initial results are presented for the summer of 1993 for the Saugeen River in southwestern Ontario. The new scheme produces realistic hydrographs, whereas the old scheme did not. Bare ground evaporation is reduced by about 17% as a consequence of reduced water availability in layer 1. Evapotranspiration is not affected because the rooting depth extends into layer 3, in which soil moisture does not change appreciably with the new scheme. These results suggest that the new scheme improves the representation of streamflow in WATFLOOD/CLASS and of the soil moisture budget in CLASS. Work is in progress to validate this result over basins, such as the BOREAS study watersheds, where both runoff and evapotranspiration measurements are available.     

地表面物理过程与生物地球化学过程耦合反馈机理的模拟研究

利用大气—植被相互作用模式（AVIM）研究地表面物理过程与生物地球化学过程耦合的机理和实现方法,其基础是植物与非生物环境之间物质和能量交换等物理过程影响植物的生理生长过程,使得植被宏观形态和相应的地表的动力学参数上发生显著变化,又反过来作用于植被与大气、土壤之间的物理交换过程。这种气候与生物圈双向反馈过程是在季节和年际时间尺度上的主要相互作用机理。应用AVIM于内蒙古半干旱草原,模拟了在大气状况强迫下,草原生态系统初级生产力,植被与大气之间CO2、潜热和感热的交换,揭示了地表物理和生物学过程耦合反馈机理。