Numerical investigations of extreme winds over Switzerland during 1990–2010 winter storms with the Canadian Regional Climate Model

This study reports on the ability of the Canadian Regional Climate Model to simulate the surface wind gusts of 24 severe mid-latitude storms in Switzerland during the period 1990–2010. A multiple self-nesting approach is used, reaching a final 2-km grid which is centred over Switzerland, a country characterised by complex topography. A physically-based wind gust parameterization scheme is applied to simulate local surface gusts. Model performance is evaluated by comparing simulated wind speeds to time series at weather stations. While a number of simulated variables are reproduced in a realistic manner, the surface wind gusts show differences when compared to observed values. Results indicate that the performance of this parameterization scheme not only depends on the accuracy of the simulated planetary boundary layer, the vertical temperature, wind speed and atmospheric humidity profiles, but also on the accuracy of the reproduction of the surface fields such as temperature and moisture.     

Extremes of near-surface wind speed over Europe and their future changes as estimated from an ensemble of RCM simulations

In this study, we analyse the uncertainty of the effect of enhanced greenhouse gas conditions on windiness projected by an ensemble of regional model simulations driven by the same global control and climate change simulations. These global conditions, representative for 1961–1990 and 2071–2100, were prepared by the Hadley Centre based on the IPCC SRES/A2 scenario. The basic data sets consist of simulated daily maximum and daily mean wind speed fields (over land) from the PRUDENCE data archive at the Danish Meteorological Institute. The main focus is on the results from the standard 50 km-resolution runs of eight regional models. The best parameter for determining possible future changes in extreme wind speeds and possible change in the number of storm events is maximum daily wind speed. It turned out during this study that the method for calculating maximum daily wind speed differs among the regional models. A comparison of simulated winds with observations for the control period shows that models without gust parameterisation are not able to realistically capture high wind speeds. The two models with gust parametrization estimate an increase of up to 20% of the number of storm peak (defined as gusts?≥?8 Bft in this paper) events over Central Europe in the future. In order to use a larger ensemble of models than just the two with gust parameterisation, we also look at the 99th percentile of daily mean wind speed. We divide Europe into eight sub-regions (e.g., British Isles, Iberian Peninsula, NE Europe) and investigate the inter-monthly variation of wind over these regions as well as differences between today’s climate and a possible future climate. Results show differences and similarities between the sub-regions in magnitude, spread, and seasonal tendencies. The model ensemble indicates a possible increase in future mean daily wind speed during winter months, and a decrease during autumn in areas influenced by North Atlantic extra-tropical cyclones.     

Relating remotely sensed forest damage data to wind data: storms Lothar (1999) and Vivian (1990) in Switzerland

This study compares the surface wind speed and forest damage data of two exceptionally severe winter storms, Vivian 1990 and Lothar 1999. The study area comprises the region that suffered damage in Switzerland. The wind speed data were derived from simulations of MeteoSwiss (Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology), measurements during the storm periods and expert analyses of the data. The remotely sensed forest damage data were provided by the Federal Office for the Environment and the forest cover data by Swiss Federal Statistical Office. We compared data on the peak gust and maximum average wind speed, with data on the spatially related forest area and forest damage area, and found some clear differences in the correlations between the different wind data and forest damage. Our results point generally to the damage-causing role of near-surface gusts at maximum wind speeds during the storm. These tended to be spatially distributed on a fine scale. In only a few cases were the results statistically significant. However, these results could probably be improved with better wind data. For example, gust measurements spatially closer to forests or simulations of gusts at maximum wind speed could be produced with a spatially higher resolution.     

浙江省几种灾害性大风近地面阵风系数特征

阵风特性研究是大风预报和服务的基础。基于2011-2013年浙江省自动气象站逐日逐10 min测风资料,分析了浙江省陆地和近海海面冷空气、热带气旋和强对流大风的阵风系数特征。结果表明:冷空气和热带气旋大风阵风系数空间分布基本相同,大风主要发生在近海海面和沿海地区,海面阵风系数一般小于1.5,等值线平行于海岸线且自西向东逐渐减小,陆地阵风系数一般大于2.0,山区可超过3.0,表现出地形对阵风系数的增强作用。强对流大风阵风系数明显高于业务规范平均值,发生地点遍及浙江省各地,但发生概率超过10%的站点主要位于沿海地区和近海海面。风向基本不影响阵风系数空间分布。冷空气和热带气旋站点阵风系数与海拔高度有较高正相关性。模糊聚类分析发现:浙江省400 m以上山区站与70 m以下的低海拔站点在阵风系数特征上分属不同空间类型;基于逐步回归建立站点阵风系数预报模型,检验表明:模糊聚类可帮助提高模型阵风系数预报能力。     

2009年“莫拉克”台风登陆过程阵风特征分析

利用上海台风研究所移动观测车获取的“莫拉克”台风登陆过程中超声风、温等观测资料对地面阵风特性进行了诊断分析.结果表明,在风速时间序列中叠加有周期为3-7 min的阵风扰动,显现出明显的相干结构,即沿顺风方向阵风风速峰期有下沉运动,谷期有上升运动;阵风扰动的各向异性特征明显,沿顺风方向的阵风扰动能量最大,其次是沿侧向和垂直方向的扰动能量;沿顺风方向的阵风垂直动量通量向下传播,而沿侧风方向阵风扰动动量垂直通量总体贡献接近于0.阵风扰动沿顺风方向的积分空间尺度和时间尺度最大,沿侧风方向和垂直方向其次,均明显大于湍流的积分空间和时间尺度.此外,阵风扰动的其他特征还包括:感热垂直通量极小;当平均风速较大时阵风风向变化幅度较小,而风速较小时阵风风向变化幅度则较大;动力学分析表明,阵风扰动主要表现出重力内波的一些特性.     

OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS OF SEA SURFACE WIND OVER THE QIONGZHOU STRAIT

The spatial variation and diurnal fluctuation of sea surface wind over the Qiongzhou Strait were described using verified datasets from automatic weather stations on board a ferry, buoys, and on the coast. Results are as follows: (1) On average, sea surface wind speed is 3–4 m/s larger over the Qiongzhou Strait than in the coastal area. Sea surface wind speeds of 8.0 m/s or above (on Beaufort scale five) in the coastal area are associated with speeds 5–6 m/s greater over the surface of the Qiongzhou Strait. (2) Gust coefficients for the Qiongzhou Strait decrease along with increasing wind speeds. When coastal wind speed is less than scale five, the average gust coefficient over the sea surface is between 1.4 and 1.5; when wind speed is equal to scale five or above, the average gust coefficient is about 1.35. (3) In autumn and winter, the diurnal differences of average wind speed and wind consistency over the strait are less than those in the coastal area; when wind speed is 10.8 m/s (scale six) or above, the diurnal difference of average wind speed decreases while wind consistency increases for both the strait and the coast.     

基于阵风系数模型的百米级阵风客观预报算法研究

京津冀地区经济和文化的快速发展对冬季地面瞬时强风预报要求越来越高。正确估计和预测冬季地面瞬时强风,尤其是复杂地形条件下的阵风高分辨率格点精准预报,对于提升重大活动服务保障、首都及周边地区城市安全运行及防灾减灾能力等方面都具有重要意义。本研究基于京津冀长时间序列的实况观测资料,建立了阵风系数与稳定风速、风向、地形高度各要素之间的关系模型,并结合客观统计分析方法、阵风观测数据融合技术、格点偏差订正技术,发展了一种既保留模式物理参数特征和阵风局地气候特征,又发挥格点偏差订正技术的阵风客观预报方法。冬季奥林匹克赛事期间批量检验和个例分析结果表明,基于阵风系数格点模型和模式后处理订正技术得到的百米级分辨率、分钟级更新的阵风客观预报产品,24 h预报时效内张家口赛区和延庆赛区考核站平均绝对误差分别在2.3 m/s和3.0 m/s以下,延庆赛区8级以上大风,阵风风速预报评分超过0.5,解决了复杂山区数值模式阵风预报误差大、几乎无法业务应用的瓶颈问题,满足冬季奥林匹克运动会现场服务要求。     

Some Characteristics of the Surface Boundary Layer of a Strong Cold Air Process over Southern China

In southern China,cold air is a common weather process during the winter season;it can cause strong wind,sharp temperature decreases,and even the snow or freezing rain events.However,the features of the atmospheric boundary layer during cold air passage are not clearly understood due to the lack of comprehensive observation data,especially regarding turbulence.In this study,four-layer gradient meteorological observation data and one-layer,10-Hz ultrasonic anemometer-thermometer monitoring data from the northern side of Poyang Lake were employed to study the main features of the surface boundary layer during a strong cold-air passage over southern China.The results show that,with the passage of a cold air front,the wind speed exhibits low-frequency variations and that the wind systematically descends.During the strong wind period,the wind speed increases with height in the surface layer.Regular gust packets are superimposed on the basic strong wind flow.Before the passage of cold air,the wind gusts exhibit a coherent structure.The wind and turbulent momentum fluxes are small,although the gusty wind momentum flux is slightly larger than the turbulent momentum flux.However,during the invasion of cold air,both the gusty wind and turbulent momentum fluxes increase rapidly with wind speed,and the turbulent momentum flux is larger than the gusty wind momentum flux during the strong wind period.After the cold air invasion,this structure almost disappears.     

琼州海峡沿岸大风分布规律及影响系统分析

利用琼州海峡南北沿岸自动气象站2007年9月至2010年8月风向、风速资料,分析了最大风和极大风两种大风事件标准下的海峡沿岸大风分布规律,并基于大风天气影响系统分析南北沿岸大风的差异。结果表明：琼州海峡南侧沿岸大风事件多于北侧沿岸,其中最大风标准下的大风事件南侧沿岸明显多于北侧沿岸,但极大风标准下的大风事件北侧沿岸则多于南侧沿岸,且极大风风速明显偏大;北侧沿岸两种大风事件及南侧沿岸最大风事件均主要出现在秋冬季节,其中,两侧沿岸最大风事件主要由冷空气影响造成,南侧沿岸极大风事件集中出现在秋季,由冷空气影响造成较少;两岸位于海峡东侧入口沿岸的自动站点出现大风频率最高,风速偏大,两侧入口沿岸站点次之,中间沿岸各站出现大风的频率相对较低;海峡南北沿岸出现的大风风向多为北到东风;东路冷空气比西路冷空气更易造成海峡南北沿岸同步大风,琼州海峡对冷空气湍流强度的消弱作用明显。     

ERA5再分析资料对中国大陆区域近地层风速气候特征及变化趋势再现能力的评估

基于台站观测资料,评估了欧洲中期天气预报中心（ECMWF）最高时空分辨率的第五代大气再分析资料（ERA5）对1979～2018年间中国大陆区域10 m高度风速的气候特征及其变化趋势的再现能力,并同步对比分析了ERA5资料100 m高度风速的特征和长期趋势。结果表明,ERA5资料10 m和100 m风速在空间分布、年—季节—月尺度演变的气候特征方面与台站观测非常一致,10 m风速气候态空间相关系数达到0.66。观测和再分析资料均显示,中国近地层风速呈现出显著的区域性特征,风速大值区主要分布在内蒙古、东北地区西部、新疆北部以及青藏高原西部地区,上述区域的风速季节差异也相对明显,春季风速最大。台站观测、ERA5资料10 m和100 m全国平均风速在4月达到最大值,分别为2.6、3.0、4.5 m s–1,8月为最小值,分别为2.0、2.4、3.5 m s–1。从月平均序列来看,ERA5资料的10 m风速较台站观测偏高0.3～0.5 m s–1,而100 m的风速较10 m风速整体偏高1.2～1.4 m s–1。在风速变化方面,台站观测风速在中国陆地区域整体呈下降趋势–0.4 m s–1（39 a）–1,春季下降趋势最显著[–0.5 m s–1（39 a）–1],且1979～1992年冬季风速降幅最大[–0.7 m s–1（14 a）–1],2013年以后风速逐渐增强。ERA5资料两个高度层的风速在整个中国区域均没有明显的长期变化趋势,4个季节风速变化趋势的空间分布与观测也存在差异,100m风速的长期变化趋势与10 m一致但变化幅度大于10 m风速。总之,ERA5资料对中国大陆区域气候平均风速具有较好的再现能力,但无法呈现台站观测风速的长期变化趋势。     

汕尾浮标站的风况特征分析

利用广东省汕尾红海湾大型浮标站的近4年观测资料,统计分析汕尾红海湾近海海面风的日变化特征、季节变化特征和大风特点.分析表明：红海湾近海海面秋、冬风速大,夏季风速小,风向以东北风为主;平均情况下中午前后风速较小,早晚较大,风向以东北风为主;冷空气和热带气旋是造成红海湾近海大风的主要天气系统;大风平均阵风系数较小,最大阵风系数在热带气旋影响下出现.     

阵风因子与大气边界层要素的关系及预报试验

利用2008—2016年舟山4个海岛气象站大风资料和欧洲中心的ERA-interim再分析资料,分析了阵风因子随平均风速、风向、小时、月份等分布的气候特征,统计阵风因子与边界层的大气稳定度、250～1000m风速与10m风速的比值、6h变温等要素的相关后,选取最佳预报因子,利用BP人工神经网络方法,根据不同因子组合对阵风进行循环试报。结果表明:①平均风速较小时阵风因子波动范围大;靠近大陆站点的阵风因子及来自陆地方向气流的阵风因子偏大。②白天11:00—16:00受太阳辐射影响大气湍流相对较强,阵风因子偏大。7—9月沿海受台风影响频繁,其阵风因子要大些,而11—12月阵风因子偏大则与来流方向的地表粗糙度较大有关。③阵风因子和边界层不同高度的风速与10m风速比值,及气温具有明显正相关,与边界层大气稳定度参数具有负相关,相关结果印证了阵风主要物理成因与动量的垂直湍流输送有关。④阵风循环试报表明最佳组模型试报的绝对误差及方差均比对比组模型减少约11%～25%,具有较好的预报效果。     

Variations in Some Climatological Characteristics at the Aerodromes of the Russian Federation in 2001–2015

The variations in several climatological characteristics are studied on the basis of hourly (half-hourly) meteorological terminal observations at 51 aerodromes of the Russian Federation in 2001–2015. For every aerodrome extreme temperature, wind speed and gusts, and QNH are analyzed for the above period. Using data for three consecutive 5-year periods, variations in the number of days with temperature above 30°C or below -30°C, with wind speed of ≥10 m/s and gusts of ≥15 m/s are considered. The occurrence frequency of significant weather events affecting the takeoff and landing (fog, blizzard, freezing precipitation, thunderstorm) is investigated. The results for aerodromes with positive or negative trends in the occurrence frequency of weather phenomena in 2001–2015 are presented.     

江苏沿海近地层风阵性及台风对其影响

为了研究风阵性特征,尤其是在受台风影响时湍流特征对安全开发利用风能资源的影响,利用江苏沿海5座测风塔2009年6月—2012年11月的梯度风观测数据,分析了近地层风阵性基本特征,并筛选了7个对江苏产生较大影响的台风,包括罕见的正面登陆台风达维（1210）,分析台风影响下风阵性特征。研究发现:江苏沿海地区低层的风脉动性比高层强,10 m高度的年平均阵风系数和湍流强度分别为1.50和0.20;海陆分布明显影响风阵性,离岸风的湍流强度明显大于向岸风;当风速等级小于6级时,风阵性随风速增大而一致性减小,之后则稳定少变;在台风中心附近,受风速、风向快速多变的影响,湍流强度和阵风系数均远大于台风外围和没有台风影响的情况,湍流强度和阵风系数在30~50 m高度之间增加,在6~7级风时出现风阵性的局部峰值区。     

浙江海岛台风和冬季大风阵风特征的对比分析

为了提高阵风预报准确率,利用2006—2016年浙江7个海岛气象站资料和ERA-interim资料,分析了台风和冬季大风的阵风因子与10 m稳定风速、风向、Brunt-Vaisala频率、总体理查逊数、边界层250~1 000 m风速及其与10 m稳定风速比值等的关系,对比两种大风系统阵风的主要成因差异,最后对冬季大风的阵风因子进行拟合。(1)从总体上,台风阵风因子比冬季大风要大0.1~0.2,波动幅度也一般比冬季大风偏大0.3~0.5。有些站点在稳定风速较大时,阵风因子随稳定风速变化不明显,而有的站点变化幅度较大。(2)站点不同方位的地表特征差异明显,导致台风和冬季大风的阵风因子在某个风向上有较统一的最大值和最小值,两者差值一般为0.2~0.3。(3)大气边界层台风样本主要表现为气流辐合上升及正涡度,而冬季大风样本主要表现为辐散下沉及负涡度,台风垂直速度、涡度和散度的强度均明显大于冬季大风样本;从Brunt-Vaisala频率来看,边界层750 m处冬季大风样本总体为静力不稳定,而台风样本总体为静力稳定;从总体理查逊数来看,台风样本和冬季大风样本两者边界层250 m处动力不稳定程度接近。(4)台风和冬季大风的阵风主要形成机制不同,冬季阵风与边界层上层气流向下动量传输引发的辐合辐散有关,而台风阵风可能更多与边界层气流的水平动量输送引发的辐合辐散有关。(5)基于风向、边界层1 000 m处风速和10 m稳定风速的冬季大风阵风因子的拟合模型,比仅考虑10 m稳定风速的拟合模型的绝对误差减少了20%~50%,误差方差也减少了10%~30%。      

Estimation of sector roughness lengths and the effect on prediction of the vertical wind speed profile

An estimate of roughness length is required by some atmospheric models and is also used in the logarithmic profile to determine the increase of wind speed with height under neutral conditions. The choice of technique for determining roughness lengths is generally constrained by the available input data. Here, we compare sets of roughness lengths derived by different methods for the same site and evaluate their impact on the prediction of the vertical wind speed profile.Wind speed and direction data have been collected at four heights over a three-year period at the North Norfolk Wind Monitoring Site. Wind speed profiles were used to generate sector roughness lengths based on the logarithmic profile formula. This is the only direct way of determining roughness lengths. The simplest and cheapest method is to use maps with published tables giving roughness length estimates for different terrain types. Alternatively Wieringa (1976, 1986) and Beljaars (1987) give formulae for determining roughness lengths from wind speed gusts or standard deviations.The four sets of estimated roughness lengths vary considerably. They were used to estimate 34 m wind speeds from 12.7 m observations. The profile-derived roughnesses are used simply as a check on the prediction of the wind speed profiles. The terrain-derived roughness lengths give reasonable results. Gust-derived and standard deviation roughnesses both predict wind speeds which are lower than the observed ones. The error is greater in the case of standard deviation roughnesses. If stability corrections are applied in the prediction of the vertical wind speed profile, the results are considerably improved.     

Changes in wind speed over China during 1956–2004

Based on two observational data sets in China from 1956 to 2004, wind speed changes are analyzed. The annual mean wind speed (MWS), days of strong wind (SWDs), and maximum wind (MW) all show declining trends over broad areas of China. Only in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau and the regions from the Great Bend of the Yellow River southward to Yunnan and Guangxi Provinces wind speeds are not significantly reduced, but rather, in partial, these regions’ winds speeds are slightly increased. The regions with declining trends match the areas with relatively strong observed winds and the regions without significant declining trends match the areas with light observed winds. In the meantime, the regions with relatively strong winds correspond to areas of reduced days of SWDs. Trends for both increasing intensities and for the number of days of light winds both impact the installation of wind energy facilities. These may be advantageous to the development of wind energy in different regions. Urbanization, the change of anemometers, or relocation of stations are factors that are mildly responsible for the decreasing trend of MWS. The main reason for the decreasing trend is that under the background of global warming, the contrasts of the sea level pressure, and near-surface temperature between the Asian continent and the Pacific Ocean have become significantly smaller, and the east Asian trough has shifted eastward and northward, and has weakened as well. Both East Asian winter and summer monsoons are decreasing, and all of these impacts have resulted in declines of MWS in China.     

Gust and downward momentum transport in the atmospheric surface layer

The intermittent structure of the turbulent wind field in the atmospheric surface layer is investigated by conditional sampling methods. The results show that downward momentum can be transported efficiently during a peak gust. The horizontal structure of the gust is also revealed by observing the spatial structure of wind speed fluctuations from a network of 28 anemometers. The high wind region consists of a gust front with a sudden increase of wind speed at the front and a slow decrease to its rear. The development of the gust front is related closely to the momentum flux during the short time of passage of the gust.     

成都双流机场“7.9”低空风切变天气过程分析

利用多普勒雷达对2010年7月9日发生在成都双流机场的两次低空风切变飞行事件进行分析, 这两次低空风切变过程是由中尺度对流系统 (MCS) 产生的阵风锋和下沉气流造成的。利用实时的多普勒气象雷达和地面自动观测数据, 确定阵风锋的传播方向和速度, 估计阵风锋引起的风切变发生的时段和位置;多普勒反射率因子的形态及多普勒速度图像能有效判断下沉气流的区域, 对下沉气流造成的风切变有很好的指示和预警作用。      

Observational Study of Surface Wind along a Sloping Surface over Mountainous Terrain during Winter

The 2018 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games will be held in Pyeongchang, Korea, during February and March. We examined the near surface winds and wind gusts along the sloping surface at two outdoor venues in Pyeongchang during February and March using surface wind data. The outdoor venues are located in a complex, mountainous terrain, and hence the near-surface winds form intricate patterns due to the interplay between large-scale and locally forced winds. During February and March, the dominant wind at the ridge level is westerly; however, a significant wind direction change is observed along the sloping surface at the venues. The winds on the sloping surface are also influenced by thermal forcing,showing increased upslope flow during daytime. When neutral air flows over the hill, the windward and leeward flows show a significantly different behavior. A higher correlation of the wind speed between upper-and lower-level stations is shown in the windward region compared with the leeward region. The strong synoptic wind, small width of the ridge, and steep leeward ridge slope angle provide favorable conditions for flow separation at the leeward foot of the ridge. The gust factor increases with decreasing surface elevation and is larger during daytime than nighttime. A significantly large gust factor is also observed in the leeward region.