Estimation of the Distribution of Global Anthropogenic Heat Flux

The radiance lights data in 2006 from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program/Operational Linescan System (DMSP/OLS) and authoritative energy data distributed by the United State Energy Information Administration were applied to estimate the global distribution of anthropogenic heat flux.A strong linear relationship was found to exist between the anthropogenic heat flux and the DMSP/OLS radiance data.On a global scale,the average value of anthropogenic heat flux is approximately 0.03 W m 2 and 0.10 W m 2 for global land area.The results indicate that global anthropogenic heat flux was geographically concentrated and distributed,fundamentally correlating to the economical activities.The anthropogenic heat flux concentrated in the economically developed areas including East Asia,Europe,and eastern North America.The anthropogenic heat flux in the concentrated regions,including the northeastern United States,Central Europe,United Kingdom,Japan,India,and East and South China is much larger than global average level,reaching a large enough value that could affect regional climate.In the center of the concentrated area,the anthropogenic heat flux density may exceed 100 W m 2,according to the results of the model.In developing areas,including South America,Central and North China,India,East Europe,and Middle East,the anthropogenic heat flux can reach a level of more than 10 W m 2 ;however,the anthropogenic heat flux in a vast area,including Africa,Central and North Asia,and South America,is low.With the development of global economy and urban agglomerations,the effect on climate of anthropogenic heat is essential for the research of climate change.     

江苏省人为热排放现状及未来变化趋势分析

依据1990~2013年江苏省能源消费统计资料和1990、1995、2000、2005、2010年的人口空间分布数据,估计江苏省人为热排放量、探讨其时空分布特征并预测其未来变化趋势。研究结果表明,20多年来江苏省的人为热排放量持续增长,从1990年全省平均的0.59 W/m~2增加到2013年的2.85 W/m~2。排放的空间分布也不均匀,总体上江苏南部地区的排放通量高于江苏北部。近些年江苏省的人为热排放已成为区域问题,高值区已连接成片,2010年江苏省大部分地区的人为热排放高于2.5 W/m~2,南部主要城市排放通量大于10 W/m~2、北部城市也多大于5 W/m~2。江苏各城市的城区人为热排放通量稳步增长,2002年后增长加速、增量最高可达到2 W m~(-2) a~(-1)。在2030年和2050年江苏省的平均人为热排放通量将分别达到5.7 W/m~2和9.1 W/m~2,可能对中国东部的气候和大气环境产生重要影响。     

全球年平均人为热释放气候强迫的估算

利用能源经济领域具有权威性的英国石油公司(BP)世界能源统计资料和联合国人口统计资料,通过一些简单的数值计算,初步估算了人为热释放的全球气候强迫。结果表明:当前(2008年)全球年平均人为热释放的气候强迫还不是很大,约为0.031W/m2;但随着人口及能源消费总量的增加,未来人为热释放产生的全球年平均气候强迫将有可能达0.30W/m2。     

Estimation of anthropogenic heat emission in the Gyeong-In region of Korea

The anthropogenic heat emission in the Gyeong-In region of Korea in 2002 is estimated based on the energy consumption statistics data. The energy consumption over the region is categorized into four energy sectors: electricity use, transportation, point sources, and area sources. The estimated annual mean anthropogenic heat emissions in Seoul, Incheon, and Gyeonggi are found to be 55, 53, and 28 W m^?2, respectively. A major contributing energy sector to anthropogenic heat emission in the Gyeong-In region is area sources including the residential, commercial, and small industrial sectors, which account for 40% of the total heat emission from the three administrative districts, and transportation and electricity use follow. The distributions of the annual, monthly, and hourly mean anthropogenic heat emission for all energy sectors are presented in the 0.01° longitude × 0.01° latitude grid domain. The presently estimated anthropogenic heat emission data can be used in mesoscale meteorological and environmental modeling in the Gyeong-In region.     

上海城市集群化发展显著增强局地高温热浪事件

上海作为中国城市集群化发展的典型代表,经过30余年圈层式、集群化扩张,城市建设用地面积比例高达47.9%,接近50%的生态阈值。城市群快速扩张诱发了一个以徐家汇为中心覆盖周边40 km的区域性热岛,影响高温热浪的时空分布。基于DMSP/OLS遥感夜间灯光数据构建的城市发展指数,客观地反映出1992—2013年上海西郊嘉定、青浦和东郊的浦东集群化发展特征最凸出。利用Chow检验最优分段建模法,研究发现高温热浪期间城市群热岛突变转折与区县城市发展指数超过60%的年份相对应。城市发展指数超过60%后,近郊城市继续扩张将缩小城、郊气象站的温差,诱发更大范围热岛,增强高温热浪。1977—2000年近郊区县城市发展指数低于60%,高温热浪各要素项城郊差值显著上升,而2000年西郊城市发展指数超过60%后,和市中心差值减小,快速城市化明显增强西郊高温热浪强度和持续时间。1978年以来上海西郊与远郊高温日数差值增加了1.6倍,平均气温差值增加了34.4%,平均最高气温差值增加了41.7%。高温热浪期间遥感数据显示,向西郊伸展的城市群地表温度高值区规模扩大了32.8%,是西郊高温热浪增强的驱动因子。     

Comparison of Ozone and PM2.5 Concentrations over Urban,Suburban, and Background Sites in China

Surface ozone (O₃) and fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) are dominant air pollutants in China. Concentrations of these pollutants can show significant differences between urban and nonurban areas. However, such contrast has never been explored on the country level. This study investigates the spatiotemporal characteristics of urban-to-suburban and urban-to-background difference for O₃ (Δ[O₃]) and PM_2.5 (Δ[PM_2.5]) concentrations in China using monitoring data from 1171 urban, 110 suburban, and 15 background sites built by the China National Environmental Monitoring Center (CNEMC). On the annual mean basis, the urban-to-suburban Δ[O₃] is ?3.7 ppbv in Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei, 1.0 ppbv in the Yangtze River Delta, ?3.5 ppbv in the Pearl River Delta, and ?3.8 ppbv in the Sichuan Basin. On the contrary, the urban-to-suburban Δ[PM_2.5] is 15.8, ?0.3, 3.5 and 2.4 μg m^?3 in those areas, respectively. The urban-to-suburban contrast is more significant in winter for both Δ[O₃] and Δ[PM_2.5]. In eastern China, urban-to-background differences are also moderate during summer, with ?5.1 to 6.8 ppbv for Δ[O₃] and ?0.1 to 22.5 μg m^?3 for Δ[PM_2.5]. However, such contrasts are much larger in winter, with ?22.2 to 5.5 ppbv for Δ[O₃] and 3.1 to 82.3 μg m^?3 for Δ[PM_2.5]. Since the urban region accounts for only 2% of the whole country’s area, the urban-dominant air quality data from the CNEMC network may overestimate winter [PM_2.5] but underestimate winter [O₃] over the vast domain of China. The study suggests that the CNEMC monitoring data should be used with caution for evaluating chemical models and assessing ecosystem health, which require more data outside urban areas.     

The impacts of urbanization on air quality over the Pearl River Delta in winter: roles of urban land use and emission distribution

In this study, ideal but realistic numerical experiments are performed to explore the relative effects of changes in land use and emission distribution on air quality in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region in winter. The experiments are accomplished using the Lagrangian particle transport and dispersion model FLEXPART coupled with the Weather Research and Forecasting model under different scenarios. Experiment results show that the maximum changes in daily mean air pollution concentration (as represented by SO₂ concentration) caused by land use change alone reaches up to 2?×?10^?6 g m^?3, whereas changes in concentrations due to the anthropogenic emission distribution are characterized by a maximum value of 6?×?10^?6 g m^?3. Such results reflect that, although the impacts of land use change on air quality are non-negligible, the emission distribution exerts a more significant influence on air quality than land use change. This provides clear implications for policy makers to control urban air pollution over the PRD region, especially for the urban planning in spatial arrangements for reasonable emissions.     

Parameterisation of incoming longwave radiation over glacier surfaces in the semiarid Andes of Chile

A good understanding of radiation fluxes is important for calculating energy, and hence, mass exchange at glacier surfaces. This study evaluates incoming longwave radiation measured at two nearby glacier stations in the high Andes of the Norte Chico region of Chile. These data are the first published records of atmospheric longwave radiation measurements in this region. Nine previously published optimised parameterisations for clear sky emissivity all produced results with a root mean square error (RMSE) ~20 W?m^?2 and bias within ±5 W m^?2, which is inline with findings from other regions. Six optimised parameterisations for incoming longwave in all sky conditions were trialled for application to this site, five of which performed comparably well with RMSE on daytime data <18 W?m^?2 and bias within ±6 W?m^?2 when applied to the optimisation site and RMSE <20 W?m^?2 and bias within ±10 W m^?2 when applied to the validation site. The parameterisation proposed by Mölg et al. (J Glaciol 55:292-302, 2009) was selected for use in this region. Incorporating the proposed elevation modification into the equation reduced the bias in the modelled incoming longwave radiation for the validation site. It was found that applying the parameterisation optimised in the original work at Kilimanjaro produced good results at both the primary and validation site in this study, suggesting that this formulation may be robust for different high mountain regions.     

TropFlux: air-sea fluxes for the global tropical oceans—description and evaluation

In this paper, we evaluate several timely, daily air-sea heat flux products (NCEP, NCEP2, ERA-Interim and OAFlux/ISCCP) against observations and present the newly developed TropFlux product. This new product uses bias-corrected ERA-interim and ISCCP data as input parameters to compute air-sea fluxes from the COARE v3.0 algorithm. Wind speed is corrected for mesoscale gustiness. Surface net shortwave radiation is based on corrected ISCCP data. We extend the shortwave radiation time series by using “near real-time” SWR estimated from outgoing longwave radiation. All products reproduce consistent intraseasonal surface net heat flux variations associated with the Madden-Julian Oscillation in the Indian Ocean, but display more disparate interannual heat flux variations associated with El Ni?o in the eastern Pacific. They also exhibit marked differences in mean values and seasonal cycle. Comparison with global tropical moored buoy array data, I-COADS and fully independent mooring data sets shows that the two NCEP products display lowest correlation to mooring turbulent fluxes and significant biases. ERA-interim data captures well temporal variability, but with significant biases. OAFlux and TropFlux perform best. All products have issues in reproducing observed longwave radiation. Shortwave flux is much better captured by ISCCP data than by any of the re-analyses. Our “near real-time” shortwave radiation performs better than most re-analyses, but tends to underestimate variability over the cold tongues of the Atlantic and Pacific. Compared to independent mooring data, NCEP and NCEP2 net heat fluxes display ~0.78 correlation and >65?W?m^?2 rms-difference, ERA-I performs better (~0.86 correlation and ~48?W?m^?2) while OAFlux and TropFlux perform best (~0.9 correlation and ~43?W?m^?2). TropFlux hence provides a useful option for studying flux variability associated with ocean–atmosphere interactions, oceanic heat budgets and climate fluctuations in the tropics.     

Monthly variations of net heat flux at the air‐sea interface in coastal waters near Jeddah,Red Sea

Abstract

Based on 16 years of oceanographic and meteorological data the monthly variations of the net heat flux at the air‐sea interface in coastal waters near Jeddah show that the sea gains an average of about 14 ±2 W m^?2 from April to October and loses about 79± 4W m^?2from November to March. The loss of heat during the winter months is not compensated by the gain during the summer months and therefore leads to an annual average deficit of 25 ± 3 Wm^?2. The gain during summer may not favour the formation of a strong seasonal thermocline.     

On hurricane energy

Warm seawater is the energy source for hurricanes. Interfacial sea-to-air heat transfer without spray ranges from 100?W?m^?2 in light wind to 1,000?W?m^?2 in hurricane force wind. Spray can increase sea-to-air heat transfer by two orders of magnitude and result in heat transfers of up to 100,000?W?m^?2. Drops of spray falling back in the sea can be 2–4?°C colder than the drops leaving the sea, thus transferring a large quantity of heat from sea to air. The heat of evaporation is taken from the sensible heat of the remainder of the drop; evaporating approximately 0.3?% of a drop is sufficient to reduce its temperature to the wet bulb temperature of the air. The heat required to evaporate hurricane precipitation is roughly equal to the heat removed from the sea indicating that sea cooling is due to heat removal from above and not to the mixing of cold water from below. The paper shows how case studies of ideal thermodynamic processes can help explain hurricane intensity.     

The formation and maintenance of the North Water Polynya

Abstract

This paper investigates the formation and maintenance of the North Water Polynya, Baffin Bay in winter using a multi‐category sea‐ice model coupled with the Princeton ocean model. Monthly climatological atmospheric data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis provides the forcing. An objectively‐analysed climatology provides the initial ocean temperature and salinity. Wind stress drives the ice in a cyclonic gyre around northern Baffin Bay. Localized regions of thin ice form where wind drives ice away from coastlines or fast ice. The regions of thin ice are characterized by enhanced ice growth, exceeding 1.2 m mo^?1. In the regions of thin ice, surface ocean heat flux is also enhanced and is between 30–60 W m^?2. Surface heat flux is, in part, attributable to convective mixing and entrainment driven by ice growth. The surface heat flux reflects advection of the warm West Greenland Current. Heat and salt balances show that horizontal advective exchange counterbalances surface fluxes of heat and salt.     

Influences of the Internal Mixing of Anthropogenic Aerosols on Global Aridity Change

Influences of the mixing treatments of anthropogenic aerosols on their effective radiative forcing (ERF) and global aridity are evaluated by using the BCC_AGCM2.0_CUACE/Aero, an aerosol–climate online coupled model. Simulations show that the negative ERF due to external mixing (EM, a scheme in which all aerosol particles are treated as independent spheres formed by single substance) aerosols is largely reduced by the partial internal mixing (PIM, a scheme in which some of the aerosol particles are formed by one absorptive and one scattering substance) method. Compared to EM, PIM aerosols have much stronger absorptive ability and generally weaker hygroscopicity, which would lead to changes in radiative forcing, hence to climate. For the global mean values, the ERFs due to anthropogenic aerosols since the pre-industrial are–1.02 and–1.68 W m^–2 for PIM and EM schemes, respectively. The variables related to aridity such as global mean temperature, net radiation flux at the surface, and the potential evaporation capacity are all decreased by 2.18/1.61 K, 5.06/3.90 W m^–2, and 0.21/0.14 mm day^–1 since 1850 for EM and PIM schemes, respectively. According to the changes in aridity index, the anthropogenic aerosols have caused general humidification over central Asia, South America, Africa, and Australia, but great aridification over eastern China and the Tibetan Plateau since the pre-industrial in both mixing schemes. However, the aridification is considerably alleviated in China, but intensified in the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa in the PIM scheme.     

Local energy exchanges in a shallow,coastal lagoon: Summer conditions

Abstract

Meteorological and hydrographic data from the Indian River lagoon on the Atlantic coast of South Florida are used to describe the magnitude and relative importance of local heat flux processes in a bar‐built estuary for summer conditions. Over a 72‐day period in 1979, the energy gain by absorbed net insolation, averaging 316 W m^‐2 is very nearly balanced by the energy loss due to net long‐wave radiation (‐61 W m^‐2), sensible heat loss (‐54 W m^‐2) and evaporation (‐194 W m^‐2). Day‐to‐day imbalances, however, result in cycles of heating and cooling over time scales on the order of 4–6 days. Water temperatures fluctuate only ±0.5–1.0°C about the seasonal normal, reflecting relatively stable meteorological conditions. Heat energy stored in these estuarine waters in summer months is most highly correlated with the absorption of net insolation.     

Temperature variations and rice yields in China: historical contributions and future trends

Temperature is the principal factor that determines rice growth, development and ultimately grain yield. In this study, normal growing-degree-days (NGDD) and killing growing-degree-days (KGDD) were used to capture the different effects of normal and extreme temperatures on rice yields, respectively. Based on these indexes, we assessed the contributions of temperature variations to county-level rice yields across China during the historical period (1980–2008), and estimated the potential exposure of rice to extreme temperature stress in the near future (2021–2050). The results showed that historical temperature variations had measurable impacts on rice yields with a distinct spatial pattern: for different regions, such variations had contributed much to the increased rice yields in Northeast China (Region I) (0.59 % yield year^?1) and some portions of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau (Region II) (0.34 % yield year^?1), but seriously hindered the improvements of rice yields in the Sichuan Basin (SB) (?0.29 % yield year^?1) and the southern cultivation areas (Region IV) (?0.17 % yield year^?1); for the entire country, half of the contributions were positive and the other half were negative, resulting in a balance pattern with an average of 0.01 % yield year^?1. Under the RCP8.5 scenario, climate warming during 2021–2050 would substantially reduce cold stress but increase heat stress in the rice planting areas across China. For the future period, Region I, II and eastern China would be continually exposed to more severe cold stress than the other regions; Region III (including SB and the mid-lower reaches of Yangtze River (MLRYR)) would be the hot spot of heat stress.     

On large-scale transport of dust storms and anthropogenic dust-falls over east Asia observed in central Korea in 2009

Dust air pollution has been routinely monitored in central Korea for the last two decades. In 2009, there were eight typical episodes of significant dust loadings in the air: four were caused by dust storms from deserts in Mongolia and Northern China, while the remaining were typical cases of anthropogenic air pollution masses arriving from the Yellow Sea and East China. These natural dust loadings occurred with cool northwesterly airflows in the forward side of an intense anticyclone coming from Mongolia and Siberia. The mean concentrations of the four natural dustfall cases for TSP, PM10 and PM2.5 were 632, 480 and 100 μg m^?3, respectively. In contrast, the anthropogenic dust-pollution episodes occurred with the warm westerly and southwesterly airflows in the rear side of an anticyclone. This produced a favorable atmospheric and chemical condition for the build-up of anthropogenic dust air pollution in the Yellow Sea. The mean concentrations of the four anthropogenic dust loadings for TSP, PM10 and PM2.5 were 224, 187 and 137 μg m^?3, respectively. The contents of fine dust loadings of PM2.5 were comparatively high in the cases of anthropogenic air pollution. High atmospheric concentrations of fine particles in the atmosphere cause poor visibility and constitute a health hazard. Satellite observations clearly showed the movement of dust-pollution masses from Mongolia and Northern China and from the Yellow Sea and East China that caused these dust pollution episodes in Korea.     

The Surface Energy Budget and Its Impact on the Freeze-thaw Processes of Active Layer in Permafrost Regions of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

The surface energy budget is closely related to freeze-thaw processes and is also a key issue for land surface process research in permafrost regions.In this study,in situ data collected from 2005 to 2015 at the Tanggula site were used to analyze surface energy regimes,the interaction between surface energy budget and freeze-thaw processes.The results confirmed that surface energy flux in the permafrost region of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau exhibited obvious seasonal variations.Annual average net radiation(R_n)for 2010 was 86.5 W m^-2,with the largest being in July and smallest in November.Surface soil heat flux(G₀)was positive during warm seasons but negative in cold seasons with annual average value of 2.7 W m^-2.Variations in R_n and G₀ were closely related to freeze-thaw processes.Sensible heat flux(H)was the main energy budget component during cold seasons,whereas latent heat flux(LE)dominated surface energy distribution in warm seasons.Freeze-thaw processes,snow cover,precipitation,and surface conditions were important influence factors for surface energy flux.Albedo was strongly dependent on soil moisture content and ground surface state,increasing significantly when land surface was covered with deep snow,and exhibited negative correlation with surface soil moisture content.Energy variation was significantly related to active layer thaw depth.Soil heat balance coefficient K was>1 during the investigation time period,indicating the permafrost in the Tanggula area tended to degrade.     

中国主要城市群在灰霾污染下的近地面风场特征

利用2015—2016年全国PM_(2.5)质量浓度站点资料及CCMP(Cross Calibrated Multi-Platform)风场再分析资料,对中国华北、长三角、珠三角以及四川盆地主要城市在PM_(2.5)污染下的近地面风场及其影响进行统计分析。结果表明:(1)近地面风速与PM_(2.5)质量浓度表现为负相关,低风速有利于PM_(2.5)的积累,但是该相关关系并不完全显著,体现出"冬强夏弱"的季节性差异;(2)不同地区PM_(2.5)质量浓度对不同风向的反应不同,华北地区在偏南风主导下PM_(2.5)质量浓度较高,长三角则是在偏西风主导下PM_(2.5)质量浓度较高,而珠三角地区冬季PM_(2.5)质量浓度较高,主导风向为偏北风;(3)通过分析地面散度场发现不同地区主导的污染类型不同,华北地区、长三角以及珠三角污染类型主要为区域性污染,四川盆地主要为局地型污染。     

Direct Radiative Forcing of Anthropogenic Aerosols over Oceans from Satellite Observations

Anthropogenic aerosols play an important role in the atmospheric energy balance. Anthropogenic aerosol optical depth (AOD) and its accompanying shortwave radiative forcing (RF) are usually simulated by nu- merical models. Recently, with the development of space-borne instruments and sophisticated retrieval algorithms, it has become possible to estimate aerosol radiative forcing based on satellite observations. In this study, we have estimated shortwave direct radiative forcing due to anthropogenic aerosols over oceans in all-sky conditions by combining clouds and the Single Scanner Footprint data of the Clouds and Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES/SSF) experiment, which provide measurements of upward shortwave fluxes at the top of atmosphere, with Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) aerosol and cloud products. We found that globally averaged aerosol radiative forcing over oceans in the clear-sky conditions and all-sky conditions were -1.03±0.48 W m-2 and -0.34 ±0.16 W m-2, respectively. Direct radiative forcing by anthropogenic aerosols shows large regional and seasonal variations. In some regions and in particular seasons, the magnitude of direct forcing by anthropogenic aerosols can be comparable to the forcing of greenhouse gases. However, it shows that aerosols caused the cooling effect, rather than warming effect from global scale, which is different from greenhouse gases.     

THE ENERGY BUDGETS UNDER DIFFERENT SYNOPTIC CONDITIONS OVER HUAIHE RIVER BASIN DURING HUBEX FIELD OBSERVATION PERIODS IN 1999*

In different synoptic conditions and at different time scales,the analysis of the energy budgets by Bowen Ratio Method and Bulk Schemes over Huaihe River Basin during the field observation periods of HUBEX in 1999 shows that,(1) the averaged latent heat flux is an order of magnitude more than the averaged sensible heat flux during the observation period:(2) the variation of totalcloud amount is out of phase with the terms of energy budgets except for the downward longwave radiation which maybe is related to the cloud's height and class:(3) the values of sensible and latent heat fluxes are small during rain episodes,but thereafter,the values become high and then up to maximum.It is similar to the other terms of the energy budgets except for the downward longwave radiation.The diurnal variation of energy budgets indicates that the daytime precipitation exerts great influence to the energy budgets,but the nighttime precipitation makes little influence;(4) the variation of the latent heat flux is in phase with the evaporation,which indicates that the latent heat flux calculated by bulk schemes is reliable:(5) the means of the sensible and latent heat flux and momentum flux by bulk schemes for the time period from May to August are,respectively,30.71W/m².116.81W/m².2.86×10^-2N/m² in 1998 and 30.28W/m²,107.35W/m²,2.74×10^-2N/m² in 1999.The values of these two years are similar.During summer in 1999 the magnitude and activity of sensible heat flux are strongest in June and those of the latent heat flux are in August.