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1.
利用1982—2011年夏季(5—8月)中国气象观测站点逐日降水资料、NCEP/NCAR逐日再分析资料、NOAA逐日向外长波辐射和海表温度资料集,通过选取低频降水事件的方法,分析了华南夏季12—30 d持续性强降水事件的基本特征,然后利用位相合成法对持续性强降水期间伴随的低频大气环流型以及低频信号的来源和传播情况进行研究,同时也分析了低频海-气耦合过程对持续性强降水的影响。结果表明:(1)华南夏季降水具有显著的12—30 d低频振荡特征,持续性强降水事件在6月发生次数最多,低频降水期间的雨带自东南向西北传播。(2)在持续性强降水发生期间,华南及邻近海域低层受强大的低频气旋式环流控制,低频上升运动显著,而中国南海—菲律宾海一带则是强的低频反气旋式环流,其西侧向北的低频水汽输送不断将中国南海的水汽送至华南及邻近海域进行辐合上升。低层的低频信号来源于热带西太平洋和中国南海—菲律宾海一带低频振荡的西北向传播,同时伴随着西太平洋副热带高压明显的西伸东退过程。(3)在高层,华南北侧(22°—45°N,95°—130°E)区域强大的低频气旋式环流和孟加拉湾—中国南海一带的低频反气旋式环流相互配合,使华南高层处于强大的辐散环境中,从而加强了华南低层的辐合与低频上升运动,造成持续性强降水的增强。高层的低频信号来源于低频罗斯贝波列的东南向传播。(4)低频大气环流异常通过云辐射和热通量过程改变低频海表温度异常,而由大气强迫的低频海表温度异常通过影响低层大气的稳定性来对大气施加明显的反馈作用,该海-气耦合过程有利于大气低层低频信号向华南地区传播,从而影响了华南持续性强降水的发生、发展与结束。  相似文献   

2.
江淮流域夏季持续性强降水的低频特征分析   总被引:10,自引:2,他引:8  
曹鑫  任雪娟  孙旭光 《气象科学》2013,33(4):362-370
利用1979-2009年夏季(6-8月)中国气象观测站点逐日降水资料、NCEP/NCAR的再分析资料以及向外长波辐射资料等,选取低频降水事件来表征江淮流域夏季持续性强降水,然后分析其基本特征及伴随的低频大气环流形势,利用位相合成的方法对该低频信号的来源和传播特征进行研究.结果表明:江淮流域夏季持续性强降水在6-7月份发生次数较多;在持续性强降水期间,江淮流域低层受低频气旋控制,南海至菲律宾海一带则是很强的低频反气旋,该低频反气旋西侧,向北的低频水汽输送将水汽不断送至江淮流域形成辐合;与持续性强降水相关联的850 hPa上的低频信号,来源于黄河河套地区低频振荡的东南向传播和西北太平洋上空低频振荡的西北向传播;在高层,当持续性强降水发生时,江淮流域的西北侧(37.5°N,80 ~100°E)附近为强烈的低频气旋式环流,紧邻该环流的西北侧,则是一个低频反气旋,两者同南海—菲律宾海一带的低频反气旋构成了一个西北—东南向的低频波列;西太平洋副热带高压和南亚高压在持续性强降水期间表现出了显著的相向而行、相背而去的特征.  相似文献   

3.
中国东南部5—8月持续性强降水和环流异常的准双周振荡   总被引:10,自引:5,他引:5  
利用1979—2009年夏季(5—8月)中国站点逐日降水资料、NCEP/NCAR大气再分析资料以及向外长波辐射(OLR)资料,分析了中国东南部夏季持续性强降水的低频特征及其伴随的低频大气环流形势,利用超前滞后合成的方法对该低频信号的来源和传播特征进行了研究。结果表明:中国东南部夏季降水存在明显的准双周低频振荡,低频降水事件(持续性强降水)在6月10日前后和7月1日前后发生的次数较多,持续5d的低频降水事件降水量占总低频降水事件的比例最大。在低频降水事件发生时期,中国东南部在低层是很强的低频气旋式环流,而在中国南海至西太平洋一带则是强大的低频反气旋,同时低频的水汽从孟加拉湾北部以及中国南海、菲律宾海一带输送到长江以南地区强烈辐合上升;此时在高层一个低频反气旋控制中国东北部地区,该低频反气旋与其西侧的低频反气旋以及位于中国东南沿海的低频气旋相互配合,使得长江以南地区高层强烈地辐散,加强了低层的上升运动。在超前低频降水7d左右时,大气低层在150°E洋面附近开始出现低频反气旋,逐渐加强并向西移动到达中国东南沿海,而在中国南海一带的低频气旋则向西北移动到长江以南地区,与此同时,副热带高压有一个明显的西伸过程,高低层相互配合最终导致低频降水的发生。  相似文献   

4.
江淮流域梅雨期持续性强降水及其10~30d低频环流特征   总被引:5,自引:1,他引:4  
利用1961—2010年中国556站的逐日降水资料和NCEP/NCAR逐日再分析资料,采用合成分析等方法探讨了江淮流域梅雨期持续性强降水的低频振荡特征及其发生前后低频大气环流场的演变特征。结果表明,江淮梅雨持续性强降水存在显著的10~30 d低频振荡特征。持续性强降水发生时,江淮流域对流层高层受东海低频反气旋西北部的偏西气流控制,使得南亚高压位置偏东,加强了高层的辐散型流场;对流层中层,中高纬度地区存在"+、-、+"的低频位势高度中心,蒙古低频低压使得极地冷空气易于南侵;对流层低层,江淮流域受低频P-J波列西段的台湾岛低频反气旋影响,并伴随强烈的对流活动,此反气旋使得西太平洋副热带高压向更西的位置伸展;因此低层辐合、高层辐散使得江淮流域表现为强烈的低频上升运动,同时低频水汽从孟加拉湾-南海一带输送到江淮流域,为持续性强降水的发生提供了有利的低频环流条件。另外,在持续性强降水发生前后,低层低频正涡度向北、向西传播,高层低频负涡度向南、向东传播,高低层斜压结构明显,共同作用于江淮流域,维持持续性强降水过程。  相似文献   

5.
洪伟  任雪娟  杨修群 《气象学报》2015,73(2):276-290
利用站点降水资料和再分析资料针对华南地区5—8月的持续性强降水过程,分析了低频异常非绝热加热的时空分布特征及其对低频大气环流的可能反馈作用。得到如下结论:5—6月和7—8月华南持续性强降水期间10—30 d低频非绝热加热的演变特征有所不同,5—6月持续性强降水发生前低频非绝热加热大值区从30°N(107°—115°E)以北向南传播发展至华南地区,而在7—8月降水前非绝热加热大值区从中国南海中部向西北方向传播,并在降水最强盛期到达华南。异常环流型控制着持续性强降水的强度和位置,从而决定异常凝结潜热的演变特征。异常凝结潜热则是通过影响涡度倾向变化而对大气环流有一个反馈作用。对于发生在华南5—6月和7—8月的这2组持续性强降水过程,当降水处于发展阶段,在低频非绝热加热作用项和低频涡度平流项的共同作用下,华南上空中层存在显著的10—30 d低频正涡度倾向变化,有利于低频气旋式环流的进一步发展。非绝热加热作用项主要由加热率的垂直梯度决定,涡度平流项则与气候背景风场有密切关系。5—6月持续性强降水期间涡度平流项位于非绝热加热项东侧,而7—8月持续性强降水期间涡度平流项位于非绝热加热项北侧。在持续性强降水的衰亡期,由于非绝热加热项和涡度平流项转为负值,华南被负涡度倾向变化控制,低频气旋式环流迅速消亡。  相似文献   

6.
中国的江淮梅雨具有多时间尺度特征,利用1979—2017年欧洲中期预报中心逐日再分析资料(ERA-interim)和台站逐日降水观测数据,采用滤波和合成分析等统计方法,分析了江淮梅雨期间不同时间尺度强降雨过程的特征,对比研究了不同时间尺度强降水对应的大气环流系统波动的演变特征。研究表明江淮梅雨降水集中期开始前1~9天和10~20天尺度的强降水首先增多,而21~30天时间尺度的强降水在降水集中期开始增多。低频周期波动(10~20天和21~30天)比天气尺度波动可以提供更持续和更深厚的暖平流输送,触发持续时间更长的垂直运动和水汽输送,有利于持续性强降水的发生。与1~9天天气尺度波动相关的强降水主要与上游自中亚经青藏高原向下游传播并不断发展加强的Rossby波能量传播有关,青藏高原对天气尺度涡旋的增强有重要作用;对10~20天尺度强降水,高层中纬度东北亚低频反气旋环流西移南压,长时间维持在江淮地区,低层南海-西太平洋地区准双周振荡西北向传播,伴随西北太平洋副热带高压加强西伸是主要影响过程;对21~30天尺度强降水而言,江淮上空移动性环流不明显,高层反气旋性环流增强的过程与其北南两侧,即贝加尔湖及其以东地区气旋环流和南海-西太平洋气旋环流的发展移动有密切的联系,同时伴随了对流层中低层西北太平洋地区21~30天尺度低频波的西北传播。   相似文献   

7.
鲁围  朱益民  哈瑶 《气象科学》2023,43(2):207-214
利用全国756站逐日降水资料以及NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,研究了1961—2011年我国东部汛期持续性降水30~90 d低频变化特征及其与大气低频振荡的联系。结果表明,华南地区降水偏多型是汛期持续性降水低频变化的主导模态。对流层低层位势高度负异常和气旋型环流异常,以及高层略向北偏移的环流异常为华南汛期持续性降水低频变化提供了大尺度形势场。当西太平洋副热带高压脊线维持在22°N附近时,来自孟加拉湾和南海的水汽输送维持了华南地区汛期持续性降水活跃位相,向东北传播的副热带大气低频振荡系统对华南汛期持续性降水具有调制作用。此外,华南汛期降水低频变化还具有南北迁移的经向演变特征。  相似文献   

8.
2012年夏季华北降水和环流形势的低频振荡特征分析   总被引:3,自引:1,他引:2  
周宁芳  康志明  赖芬芬 《气象》2014,40(9):1106-1113
对2012年夏季华北降水的低频振荡特征和相应的低频环流形势进行了分析,结果表明:2012年华北夏季降水具有显著的10~13 d低频振荡周期,振荡的演变和强降水有很好的对应关系,强降水过程基本发生在振荡的波峰处。强降水发生前,对流层低层在孟加拉湾地区首先出现低频反气旋式环流并逐渐加强,菲律宾至我国南海地区的低频环流系统逐渐向西北方向传播,中高纬西风带上有负低频高度距平东移,其伴随西风槽加深东移。对流层上层伊朗高原低频气旋式环流减弱,随后青藏高原东部低频反气旋式环流加强东移。强降水发生时,来自西北太平洋的低频偏南风和西风槽东移携带的低频水汽,为华北地区提供了充沛的低频水汽。同时对流层高层青藏高原的低频反气旋式环流东移控制我国中东部地区,华北至东北地区为强烈的低频辐散中心,上升运动加强,为降水的发生提供动力条件。对流层各层低频系统的相互配合对华北强降水的发生和维持起到了重要作用。  相似文献   

9.
福建前汛期持续性强降水的大气低频特征分析   总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1  
黄丽娜  高建芸  陈彩珠  池艳珍 《气象》2014,40(6):723-732
本文采用福建1979—2010年66个气象站逐日降水资料和NCEP再分析资料和OLR资料,揭示了福建前汛期降水的低频特征,分析了福建前汛期持续性强降水同期的大气低频特征以及前期低频信号的演变特征,结果表明:(1)福建前汛期降水存在显著的低频周期,出现频率较高的前三个低频周期分别为:10~20、30~60和20~30 d;约63%的年份出现两种以上显著的低频周期;10~90 d低频变化占前汛期降水总方差的20%~30%;(2)前汛期总雨量与降水低频信号的强度呈显著正相关关系,持续性强降水的强度和持续时间与降水的低频特征关系密切,以BWO(ISO)为主的年份,持续性强降水的持续时间较短(长)。(3)福建前汛期持续性强降水期间日本以东、索马里以东和南海三个关键区皆为低频反气旋,日本至渤海湾南下的冷空气与索马里越赤道气流、南海南部越赤道气流在福建上空持续相遇形成低频气旋,导致福建上空低层低频辐合、高层低频辐散,对流活跃。(4)福建前汛期持续性强降水与热带及副热带大气低频变化密切相关,热带MJO的东传以及东亚西北太平洋地区低频信号的北传对福建持续性强降水过程的延伸期预报具有一定的指示意义。  相似文献   

10.
利用1981—2016年川西台站降水资料和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,通过合成分析、Butterworth滤波等方法,分析了大气低频振荡对川西持续性强降水的影响,以期为该地强降水预报工作提供理论参考。结果表明:川西降水主要表现为15—30 d低频振荡特征。降水期间,低层低频东北风波列和西南风波列在川西相遇,辐合上升。前期在喀拉海和西北亚分别生成低频反气旋和气旋,两个系统向东南方向移动至贝加尔湖和日本海附近,为川西降水输送冷空气,印度半岛低频气旋转换为低频反气旋为川西输送阿拉伯海水汽。中层中高纬度东北风低频波列向南传播至雨区,有低频高压和低频低压分别与低层低频反气旋和气旋相对应,向东南方向传播从而影响川西地区。高层低频波传播也主要发生在中高纬度,降水前生成于贝加尔湖以西的低频反气旋和辐散中心先向东南移动,再向西南伸展,降水开始时控制川西地区。  相似文献   

11.
This study investigates the relationship between subseasonal variations of the circulation and sea surface temperature(SST) over the South China–East Asian coastal region(EACR) in association with the persistent heavy rainfall(PHR) events over South China during May–August through statistical analysis. Based on the intensity threshold and duration criterion of the daily rainfall, a total of 63 May–June(MJ) and 59July–August(JA) PHR events are selected over South China from 1979 to 2011. The lower-level circulation anomalies on subseasonal timescale exhibit an anomalous cyclone over South China and an anomalous anticyclone shaped like a tongue over the South China Sea(SCS) during the PHR events for MJ group.The anomalous cyclone over South China in MJ originates from low-value systems in the mid-high latitudes before the rainfall. The anomalous anticyclone over the SCS is due to the westward extension of the western Pacific subtropical high(WPSH) and the southeastward propagation of the anomalous anticyclone from South China before the rainfall. For JA group, the lower-level anomalous circulation pattern is similar to that for MJ over the South China–EACR, but with di?erent features of propagation. The subseasonal anomalous anticyclone is also related to the westward stretch of the WPSH, while the anomalous cyclone is traced back to the weak anomalous cyclone over the Philippine Sea several days before the rainfall events.Positive SST anomaly(SSTA) is observed over the SCS and the Philippine Sea during the MJ PHR events on the subseasonal timescale. It is closely linked with the variation of local anomalous anticyclone. In contrast, negative SSTA occupies the South China coastal region for the JA PHR events, and it is driven by the anomalous cyclone which propagates northwestward from the Philippine Sea. The subseasonal positive(negative) SSTAs are generated via the local processes of above(below)-normal incident solar radiation and below(above)-normal latent heat fluxes. The possible role of the subseasonal SSTA in the local convective instability is also analyzed in this study.  相似文献   

12.
    
The wavelet analysis is performed of the mid- and low-latitude circulation index at 850 hPa over East Asia, the East Asian monsoon index and the precipitation over the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River during 1998 South China Sea Monsoon Experiment (SCSMEX) from May to August. Analysis shows that distinct 30–60 day low-frequency oscillation (LFO) exists in all of the above elements during the exper-iment period. Analysis of low-frequency wind field at 850 hPa from May to August with 5 days interval is performed in this paper. Analysis results reveal that: (1) A low-frequency monsoon circulation system over East Asia, characterized by distinct 30–60 day low-frequency oscillation, exists over 100°-150°E of East Asian area from the middle and eastern parts of China continent and the South China Sea to the western Pacific in both the Northern and Southern Hemisphere. The activity of East Asian monsoon is mainly af-fected by the low-frequency systems in it; (2) All of the tropical monsoon onset over the South China Sea in the fifth pentad of May, the beginning of the Meiyu period and heavy rainfall over the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River in mid-June and the heavy rainfall after mid-July are related to the activity of low-frequency cyclone belt over the region, whereas the torrential rainfall over the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in August is associated with the westward propagation of low-frequency anticyclone into the mainland; (3) There are two sources of low-frequency oscillation system over East Asia during SCSMEX. i.e. the equatorial South China Sea (SCS) and mid-high latitudes of the middle Pacific in the Northern Hemisphere. The low-frequency system over SCS propagates northward while that in mid-high latitudes mainly propagates from northeast to southwest. Both of the heavy rainfall over the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River in June and July are associated with the northward propagation of the above-mentioned SCS low-frequency systems from the tropical region and the southwestward propagation from mid-high latitudes respectively and their convergence in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River; (4) There are two activities of low-frequency cyclone and anticyclone belt each in the East Asian monsoon system during May to August. However the activity of these low-frequency circulation systems is not clearly relevant to the low-frequency circulation system in the Indian monsoon system. This means that the low-frequency circulation systems in Indian monsoon and East Asian monsoon are independent of each other. The concept previously put forward by Chinese scholars that the East Asian monsoon circulation sys-tem (EAMCS) is relatively independent monsoon circulation system is testified once more in the summer 1998. This work was supported by the key project A of the State Ministry of Science and Technology “South China Sea Monsoon Experiment” and the fruit of it.  相似文献   

13.
The intraseasonal variations of the Yangtze rainfall over eastern China and its related atmospheric circulation characteristics during the 1991 summer are examined based on the gauge-observed rainfall and the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data. Wavelet analysis shows that during the 1991 summer, the active and break sequences of rainfall over the middle and lower Yangtze Basin are mainly regulated by an oscillatory mode with a period of 15–35 days. An investigation of the circulation features suggests that the 15–35-day oscillation is associated with an anomalous low-level cyclone (anticyclone) appearing alternatively over the northern South China Sea (SCS) and the Philippine Sea, and related to a northeastward (southwestward) shift of the western Pacific subtropical anticyclone over the SCS, leading to a lower tropospheric divergence (convergence) over the Yangtze Basin. In the upper troposphere, the 15–35-day oscillation exhibits a dipole anomaly characterized by an anomalous cyclone (anticyclone) over eastern China and an anomalous anticyclone (cyclone) over the northern Tibetan Plateau, resulting in a southwestward shrinking (northeastward extending) of the South Asian anticyclone, and forming a convergence (divergence) over eastern China. Such a coupled anomalous flow pattern between the lower and upper troposphere favors large-scale descending (ascending) motion, and hence reduced (enhanced) rainfall over the Yangtze Basin. Dynamically, the intraseasonal variations in the Yangtze rainfall are mainly determined by the coupling between the low-level relative vorticity and the upper-level divergence. In the middle troposphere, the 15–35-day oscillation of the subtropical high is originated over the central North Pacific north of Hawaii, then propagates westward to the SCS-Philippine Sea, and finally modulates the intraseasonal variations of the Yangtze rainfall.  相似文献   

14.
基于诊断,本文计算了1982~2014年江南春雨的开始时间、结束时间和总降水量,分析了江南春雨的气候特征和年际变化,探讨了前冬Nino3.4区域海温异常与江南春雨的联系及可能机理。结果表明,江南春雨的起止时间和总降水量都具有显著的年际变化,前冬赤道东太平洋海温与江南春雨总量存在显著的正相关。前冬Nino3.4指数为正时,一方面通过Walker环流在赤道120°E附近区域激发出异常下沉运动以及低层异常反气旋,增强了南海地区低层西南气流以及水汽输送,另一方面与东太平洋海温变化相联系的印度洋增暖在赤道印度洋引发低层东风和孟加拉湾北部反气旋环流异常,进一步增强了江南地区的水汽输送;高层南亚地区则存在西风异常,对应江南上空辐散和抽吸作用加强,导致上升运动进一步增强,使得江南春雨总量增加;前冬Nino3.4指数为负时则次年春雨偏少;并且前冬El Ni?o事件的强度对春雨异常也有影响,前冬El Ni?o强(弱)的年份,海温异常的信号能(不能)持续到春季,江南春雨总量通常偏多(偏少)。另外,加入了前冬南极涛动指数和印度洋海盆一致模所建立的江南春雨总量的多元线性回归方程,其回归结果比基于单独的Nino3.4指数能更好地反映江南春雨的异常,可用于季节预测。  相似文献   

15.
The different effects of anomalous convective activities in the tropical western Pacific on two persistent heavy rain events in South China in 2005 and 2006 have been compared in this study. The dataused consist of NOAA Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) data, the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis and precipitation from meteorological stations in South China. Results show that the persistent heavy rain in 2005 was related to the 10-25-day westward propagation of convective activities in the tropical western Pacific from about 150 °E. The physical mechanism is interpreted as a Gill-type response of subtropical anticyclone westward extension during weak convective activities period over the Philippine Sea. Our researches also show that the persistent heavy rain in 2006 has longer period than that in 2005, and the subtropical anticyclone persists westward in the earlier summer which is possibly related to the lasting anomalous strong convective motion in the southern branch of Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in the tropic western Pacific. The anomalous convective activities affect the local Hadley circulation over the western Pacific with anomalous ascending motion south of the equator and anomalous descend motion north of it, in favor of the westward extension of the subtropical anticyclone for a long time. Comparison between the two persistent heavy rain events indicates different physical effects of convective activities in the tropical western Pacific, though both effects are helpful to the subtropical anticyclone westward extension as a common character of large-scale circulation backgrounds for persistent heavy rain events in South China.  相似文献   

16.
利用NCEP/NCAR 1 000~10 hPa 2.5 (×2.5 (的再分析资料,分析了与西太平洋副热带高压(简称西太副高)东西进退相关系的热带对流层上空东风带扰动(简称EV)的结构和演变特征.结果表明:西太副高与其南侧的东风带扰动存在同时西进的过程,当西太副高南、北两侧的东、西风带上的扰动在相向运动中抵达同一经度上时,西太副高出现异常东退.热带对流层上空东风带扰动为中高层天气系统,它从对流层中层伸展到50 hPa高度附近,在200 hPa上表现得最为明显,在热力场上表现出"上暖强下冷弱"的垂直分布特征;在西太副高东退时,东风带扰动东西侧的辐散效应和垂直运动的性质发生了显著变化,东风带扰动中心附近的垂直速度场出现从上升运动到向下下沉运动转化的过程.  相似文献   

17.
Guangzhou spring rainfall mainly exhibits interannual variation of Quasi-biannual and interdecadal variation of 30 yrs, and is in the period of weak rainfall at interdecadal time scale. SST anomalies (SSTA) of Nino3 are the strongest precursor of Guangzhou spring rainfall. They have significant positive correlation from previous November and persist stably to April. Nino3 SSTA in the previous winter affects Guangzhou spring rainfall through North Pacific subtropical high and low wind in spring. When Nino3 SSTA is positive in the previous winter, spring subtropical high is intense and westward, South China is located in the area of ascending airflow at the edge of the subtropical high, and water vapor transporting to South China is intensified by anticyclone circulation to the east of the Philippines. So Guangzhou spring rainfall is heavy. When Nino3 SSTA is negative, the subtropical high is weak and eastward, South China is far away from the subtropical high and is located in the area of descending airflow, and water vapor transporting to South China is weak because low-level cyclonic circulation controls areas to the east of the Philippines and north wind prevails in South China. So Guangzhou spring rainfall is weak and spring drought is resulted.  相似文献   

18.
海陆分布对海气相互作用的调控和副热带高压的形成   总被引:7,自引:3,他引:4  
首先回顾了近年来关于副热带高压形成和变异研究的若干动力学进展,阐明夏季副热带“四叶型”LOS-ECOD加热分布型的内涵。在此基础上研究海陆分布对海气相互作用的调控,揭示了“四叶型”加热形成的物理基础,并进一步阐明“四叶型”加热拼图及其与副热带高压形成和变异的联系。 文章还回顾了关于副热带高压中短期变异的动力研究的最新进展。给出了影响中国江淮流域持续性降水的副热带高压三维结构的空间分布型;指出东西风带扰动的传播和高/低纬扰动的正压发展是影响副热带高压变异和中国夏季降水的一种可能机制,最后证明青藏高原夏季的强加热能激发纬向非对称不稳定发展,产生南亚高压的东/西部型双模态及准双周振荡。还证明初夏低纬的强对流降水/台风也能激发纬向非对称不稳定发展,影响西太平洋副热带高压异常和中国淮河流域的持续性降水。  相似文献   

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