城市化对珠江三角洲强雷暴天气的可能影响

通过对2004年8月11日午后发生在珠江三角洲地区的一次强雷暴天气的高分辨数值模拟，研究了城市化发展可能对雷暴活动的影响问题，主要考察了与城市土地利用类型改变相关的“城市热岛”的形成和演变特征，城区粗糙度增大可能引起的低层辐合的增强过程，及其与雷暴发展强度变化的关系。结果表明:模拟的雷暴发展和演变过程与这一地区城市化的发展有密切的联系。引进了更加真实的关于珠江三角洲地区的土地利用类型资料之后，耦合了陆面模式Noah LSM的MM5模式可以更加成功地模拟出强雷暴天气的发展和演变过程。雷暴系统移经主要城市区后在珠江口西岸的增强过程与这一地区“城市热岛”的效应有关。中午时热岛开始形成于广州城区的上空，之后向南移动，范围扩大。另外，城区粗糙度增大引起的低层辐合增强可能在雷暴发展和演变过程中也起到了作用。模拟的与城市影响有关的低层辐合主要位于500 m以下的近地面层，开始时形成于城市的上风方向，并在下风方向增强， 由此引起的强烈上升运动有利于新的对流的启动和发展，促使雷暴强度增强。     

下垫面对郑州城市强降水的影响:城市化及地形影响的数值模拟研究

利用WRF-ARW中尺度区域数值模式耦合单层城市冠层模式(slab-UCM),采用ERA-interim 0.5°×0.5°再分析资料作为初始场和边界条件,对2016年6月5日郑州地区发生的一次强对流天气进行模拟,并通过改变下垫面的土地利用类型与地形高度数据设置敏感性试验,探究了城市化及郑州西北部山脉地形对对流性强降水过程的影响。结果表明:1)此次强降水过程主要受高层的低槽系统影响,前期的对流不稳定层结为对流触发提供了有利的热力条件;2)城市热岛效应能够改变下垫面的热力状况,有利于在城市地区激发更强的上升运动,使降水向城区集中;3)郑州西北侧山脉激发的重力波能够使郑州地区对流增强;4)山脉能够阻挡低层干空气向郑州地区输送,因此山脉高度的削减造成郑州地区低层相对湿度减小,使雨滴蒸发冷却增强,进而导致与降水相联系的冷池的增强,雨带移速加快,进一步导致累积降水的减少。     

陆面过程参数化对宁波地区雷暴过程模拟的影响

利用耦合复杂程度不同的陆面过程参数化方案(Noah、RUC)的新一代中尺度数值模式WRF,对2006年6月24日发生在宁波地区的一次典型的雷暴过程进行了数值模拟试验。结果表明:对于雷暴发生前期近地面热力、动力场的特征,Noah方案的模拟较为逼真,RUC方案没有反映出下垫面覆盖的多样性以及城市下垫面的影响,城乡之间差异不明显;Noah方案模拟的雷暴启动、发展过程与观测较为一致,RUC方案较好地描述出了演变过程中的关键阶段(3次合并过程);由于参数化所考虑的要素和物理过程存在一定差异,Noah方案在对降水的强度、降水中心位置的模拟方面具有一定优势;雷暴的持续时间对陆面过程参数化方案的选择比较敏感,两个方案所模拟的雷暴过程持续时间不同程度地长于实际雷暴持续时间;无论是哪种下垫面覆盖类型,白天Noah方案模拟的感热通量均大于RUC方案,而Noah方案模拟的潜热通量均小于RUC方案。     

太湖地区湖陆风对雷暴过程影响的数值模拟

利用耦合了NOAH陆面模式的WRF中尺度数值模式,对2010年8月18日发生在太湖地区的一次强雷暴过程进行数值模拟,并将模拟结果与实况进行对比。结果表明:模式能较合理地模拟出雷暴演变过程及近地面要素变化。此次雷暴天气过程发生在湖风发展强盛时期,雷暴沿东岸湖风与背景风形成的辐合线发展。通过两个敏感性试验,研究了太湖地区湖陆风对雷暴过程的影响。湖风锋对雷暴过程起触发和增强作用,湖风锋的阻挡和抬升作用导致此次雷暴的产生。在湖风锋前缘形成的初始对流进一步发展加强为雷暴,发展成熟的雷暴低层出流又与湖风作用形成新的雷暴,湖风的辐合为对流云的发展提供水汽和能量。在雷暴的形成发展过程中,感热通量输送可改变大气边界层结构,使低层不稳定能量较易释放,潜热释放加强上升和下沉气流,使边界层湿度增大,对流进一步发展增强。     

天津城市热岛效应对海风(锋)环流影响的数值模拟试验

利用中尺度数值天气模式TJ-WRF,通过对发生在天津城区的局地雷暴天气个例进行模拟,重点通过改变模式中下垫面土地利用类型进行敏感性模拟试验,研究天津城市热岛对海风(锋)环流强度及移动速度等的影响。结果表明:不同土地利用类型城市下垫面造成的城市热岛效应不同,当城市周边郊区下垫面土地类型改为城市建筑用地时,城市热岛效应更加明显且影响范围明显扩大;当城市下垫面改为旱作农地和牧场时,天津城区附近没有出现城市热岛效应。当海风(锋)环流向城区方向移动还未到城区附近时,城市热岛对其有明显加强和加速作用,城市热岛效应越明显其对海风(锋)环流的加强和加速作用越明显,海风(锋)环流移动加快的速度比没有城市热岛时快9.3km·h~(-1)。当海风(锋)环流移动到城区附近时与城市热岛环流相遇,海风(锋)环流受到城市热岛环流阻挡其移速又迅速减慢,其后侧气流南、北分支绕流和向上爬升现象变得明显,两环流相遇叠加后辐合上升运动也明显加强;城市热岛效应越明显其对海风(锋)环流的阻挡作用越明显,海风(锋)环流的移动速度减慢得越多,两环流相遇叠加后的辐合上升运动就越强。另外在向城区移动过程中,海风(锋)环流会使其经过地区低层空气增湿降温,但其后侧湿空气层厚度会因城市热岛效应的存在而明显减小;城市热岛效应越明显,海风(锋)环流后侧湿空气层厚度减小得越明显。     

成都地区城市化对气候影响的模拟研究

为了研究成都地区城市化对当地气候的影响,利用不同时期的下垫面土地利用类型数据和耦合单层城市冠层模型(UCM)的WRF（Weather Research and Forecasting）模式对成都夏季和冬季城市化效应进行了模拟研究,得到以下主要结论:1）成都地区城市化使夏季城区上空出现增温区域。城区地表气温升高约2.8°C,边界层高度升高约150 m,冬季地表气温平均升高约0.6°C,边界层高度升高约25 m。夏冬两季气温日较差均减小。2）受城市化影响,成都地区夏季和冬季2 m相对湿度减小,感热通量增加,潜热通量减小,且夏季变化程度强于冬季。3）城市化使地表的粗糙度增加,进而使夏季和冬季风速在城区减小,减小约0.1~0.6 m s?1,但夏季风速减小区域较冬季更大。城市化还使城市上空低层散度减小,辐合作用增强,垂直速度增大,夏季水汽往高层输送明显。4）夏季,城市化作用使日平均和白天时段降水量在城区的迎风区和下风区均增加,夜间降水量在下风区域增加,对迎风区域影响不明显。     

咸阳机场对流天气中高层垂直运动场初探

对2011年西安咸阳国际机场所有雷暴日雷暴发生时间前后的NCEP1°×1°再分析资料的400hPa垂直速度场进行分析,发现大多数雷暴发生在中高层为上升气流区的环境中,少数雷暴发生在中高层为下沉气流区的环境中。进一步的研究表明：当低层为高温高湿且有明显辐合运动时,中高层的垂直速度场对雷暴的出现并不起决定性的作用;但当低层的对流条件不明显,而中高层为强的上升气流区时,仍有发生雷暴的可能。研究为雷暴天气的预报提供了新的思路,提醒预报员在低层对流条件不明显时,还需关注中高层强上升气流区的作用。     

咸阳机场对流天气中高层垂直运动场初探

对2011年西安咸阳国际机场所有雷暴日雷暴发生时间前后的NCEP1°×1°再分析资料的400hPa垂直速度场进行分析,发现大多数雷暴发生在中高层为上升气流区的环境中,少数雷暴发生在中高层为下沉气流区的环境中。进一步的研究表明:当低层为高温高湿且有明显辐合运动时,中高层的垂直速度场对雷暴的出现并不起决定性的作用;但当低层的对流条件不明显,而中高层为强的上升气流区时,仍有发生雷暴的可能。研究为雷暴天气的预报提供了新的思路,提醒预报员在低层对流条件不明显时,还需关注中高层强上升气流区的作用。     

城市下垫面反照率变化对北京市热岛过程的影响——个例分析

随着城市的不断发展,城区地表反照率等下垫面物理特征和属性会发生明显的变化,进而会对城市热岛等大气环境形成影响。文中使用中国气象科学研究院开发的新一代数值天气预报模式(GRAPES),针对2004年10月北京一次重空气污染事件中的典型城市热岛过程,分别设计了两种数值试验方案:(1)对照试验,使用模式缺省的城区下垫面反照率参数,取值0.18;(2)敏感性试验,参考同期中国科学院大气物理研究所铁塔280m高度下垫面反照率观测事实,将北京区域城市类型下垫面反照率减小至0.15。通过对比两种试验方案在1km水平分辨率下的24h模拟结果,研究了城市下垫面反照率变化对北京地区城市热岛过程的影响。结果表明:(1)GRAPES模式可成功模拟此次热岛过程中城区和郊区近地面温度的日变化趋势;(2)城市下垫面反照率的变化对城市热岛的发展非常重要,城市反照率下降0.03会使城市热岛强度增强0.8℃左右,结果也更接近实况。这说明随着城市发展引起的地表反照率减小有利于城市热岛强度增加;(3)通过分析地表的长波辐射发现,在城市区域较小反照率情形下,城区的长波辐射始终比郊区大,有利于热岛的形成;同时也有利于城区近地层的风场辐合增加,对此次污染过程的发展是有利的。     

盛夏杭州湾一次海风锋触发雷暴的数值模拟分析

利用常规气象观测资料、多普勒气象雷达资料、浙江省自动站加密资料、NCEP/FNL再分析资料,结合高分辨率中尺度数值模式WRF对杭州湾地区2016年7月28日一次海风锋触发雷暴天气的发生、发展演变特征进行数值模拟。结果表明:1)海风锋是此次强雷暴天气过程的主要触发系统。2)中尺度模式WRF较好地模拟出此次雷暴过程的降水和低层风场、温度场分布以及海风锋水平垂直结构。3)海风锋对局地比湿及涡度特征的加强有明显的促进作用,为雷暴的发生发展提供有利的水汽和动力条件。4)分析对流参数演变曲线的突变位置,对雷暴发生的时间有一定的指示和预报意义,杭州湾南侧单纯的海风锋也可以触发雷暴的发生发展。     

Simulation of urban climate with high-resolution WRF model: A case study in Nanjing, China

In this study, urban climate in Nanjing of eastern China is simulated using 1-km resolution Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model coupled with a single-layer Urban Canopy Model. Based on the 10-summer simulation results from 2000 to 2009 we find that the WRF model is capable of capturing the high-resolution features of urban climate over Nanjing area. Although WRF underestimates the total precipitation amount, the model performs well in simulating the surface air temperature, relative humidity, and precipitation frequency and inter-annual variability. We find that extremely hot events occur most frequently in urban area, with daily maximum (minimum) temperature exceeding 36°C (28°C) in around 40% (32%) of days. Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect at surface is more evident during nighttime than daytime, with 20% of cases the UHI intensity above 2.5°C at night. However, The UHI affects the vertical structure of Planet Boundary Layer (PBL) more deeply during daytime than nighttime. Net gain for latent heat and net radiation is larger over urban than rural surface during daytime. Correspondingly, net loss of sensible heat and ground heat are larger over urban surface resulting from warmer urban skin. Because of different diurnal characteristics of urban-rural differences in the latent heat, ground heat and other energy fluxes, the near surface UHI intensity exhibits a very complex diurnal feature. UHI effect is stronger in days with less cloud or lower wind speed. Model results reveal a larger precipitation frequency over urban area, mainly contributed by the light rain events (< 10 mm d^?1). Consistent with satellite dataset, around 10?C20% more precipitation occurs in urban than rural area at afternoon induced by more unstable urban PBL, which induces a strong vertical atmospheric mixing and upward moisture transport. A significant enhancement of precipitation is found in the downwind region of urban in our simulations in the afternoon.     

Modeling the climatic effects of urbanization in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei metropolitan area

In this analysis, the weather research and forecasting model coupled with a single-layer urban canopy model is used to simulate the climatic impacts of urbanization in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei metropolitan area, which has experienced significant expansion in its urban areas. Two cases examining current landscapes and the sensitivity test of urban areas replaced by cropland have been carried out to explore the changes in the surface air and atmospheric boundary structure. The impact of urbanization on annual mean surface air temperature has been found to be more than 1 °C in urban areas, and the maximum difference is almost 2 °C. The change in near-surface level temperature is most pronounced in winter, but the area influenced by urbanization is slightly larger in summer. The annual mean water vapor mixing ratio and wind speed are both reduced in the urban area. The effect of urbanization can only heat the temperature inside the urban boundary layer, below 850 hPa. The modeling results also indicate that the underlying surface thermal forces induced by the “urban heat island” effect enhance vertical air movement and engenders a convergence zone over urban areas. The convergence at low level together with the moisture increases in the layer between 850 and 700 hPa triggered the increase of convective precipitation.     

Seasonal trends of climate change in the Yangtze Delta and its adjacent regions and their formation mechanisms

Summary Based on the monthly mean values of 10 meteorological elements from 53 surface weather stations in the Yangtze Delta and its adjacent areas during 1961–1997, the part played by linear climate trends has been analyzed to explore the characteristics of the regional climate change. The results show that the annual air temperature, and maximum and minimum air temperatures, have all increased rapidly in the Yangtze Delta, but there has been a reverse trend in its adjacent areas, i.e., the air temperatures have gradually decreased. Thus the Yangtze Delta emerges as a regional heat island in relation to its adjacent areas. The regional heat island consists of several urban heat sub-islands in southern Jiangsu Province and northern Zhejiang Province, including Shanghai, Wuxi, Changshu, Nanjing, Hangzhou and Ningbo. It appears most obvious in winter and least obvious in summer. An intensity of the regional heat island is defined, and it is shown that the variation of the heat island is positively correlated to the economic development of the region, and is assumed to be related with the increased consumption of energy due to economic development. The results of a climatological analysis of the other annual meteorological elements have indicated the tendency that the soil temperature of the Yangtze Delta has a weak cooling process, its precipitation has evidently increased, sunshine duration and visibility have apparently decreased, and the trend centers appear mainly in the cities. All these phenomena imply that air pollution and aerosols increase with economic development, leading to a cooling mechanism, which in turn suppresses the enhancement of the heat island caused by increasing consumption of energy. On the other hand, an intensified heat island also makes convection and precipitation increase. For the adjacent areas whose economic development is less intense than the Yangtze Delta, a weak cooling appeared there because their heat island caused by increasing consumption of energy resources could not offset the cooling due to aerosols. It can be seen from satellite images that the increase of aerosols in the Yangtze Delta is more obvious than its adjacent areas. By use of a three-region nested mesoscale model, a series of simulations are made with no-forcing and forcing of the optical depth of aerosol and the heating due to energy consumption by human activities. The results of the analysis and the simulation coincide very well. The simulations support the above-mentioned mechanisms of the regional heat island in the Yangtze Delta of China.     

城市化对南京气候影响的数值模拟研究

利用MODIS下垫面资料和NCEP-FNL再分析资料,采用四层嵌套,通过WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting Modeling System)模式,模拟研究了城市化对南京气候的影响。结果表明:城市土地利用类型的改变使下垫面热力、动力属性发生改变,影响了地表与大气之间的动量和热量交换,进而对局地气候特征产生影响。城市化后南京城市热岛效应明显增强,1月和7月2m气温有明显增加的趋势,边界层高度分别增加了约60m和180m 。土地利用类型改变使地表粗糙度增加,1月和7月地面风速分别减小了1.1m·s^-1和0.7m·s^-1 ,并且地面辐合得到加强。城市化使城市地区的中雨和大雨发生概率增加而小雨发生概率减少,中雨和大雨天数最大分别增加约8天和4天。     

上海城市集群化发展显著增强局地高温热浪事件

上海作为中国城市集群化发展的典型代表,经过30余年圈层式、集群化扩张,城市建设用地面积比例高达47.9%,接近50%的生态阈值。城市群快速扩张诱发了一个以徐家汇为中心覆盖周边40 km的区域性热岛,影响高温热浪的时空分布。基于DMSP/OLS遥感夜间灯光数据构建的城市发展指数,客观地反映出1992—2013年上海西郊嘉定、青浦和东郊的浦东集群化发展特征最凸出。利用Chow检验最优分段建模法,研究发现高温热浪期间城市群热岛突变转折与区县城市发展指数超过60%的年份相对应。城市发展指数超过60%后,近郊城市继续扩张将缩小城、郊气象站的温差,诱发更大范围热岛,增强高温热浪。1977—2000年近郊区县城市发展指数低于60%,高温热浪各要素项城郊差值显著上升,而2000年西郊城市发展指数超过60%后,和市中心差值减小,快速城市化明显增强西郊高温热浪强度和持续时间。1978年以来上海西郊与远郊高温日数差值增加了1.6倍,平均气温差值增加了34.4%,平均最高气温差值增加了41.7%。高温热浪期间遥感数据显示,向西郊伸展的城市群地表温度高值区规模扩大了32.8%,是西郊高温热浪增强的驱动因子。     

Estimating the ecological footprint of the heat island effect over Athens, Greece

Heat island is a very well documented climatic phenomenon that has an important energy and environmental impact in the urban environment. The main energy problems are related to the important increase of the energy consumption for cooling purposes as well as to the important increase of the peak electricity load. Heat island in Athens, Greece, is measured during the last decade and its energy impact is calculated in details. The aim of the present paper is to estimate the direct and indirect environmental impact of the heat island effect in Athens. This is achieved through the estimation of the additional ecological footprint caused by the urban heat island phenomenon over the city. The ecological footprint estimation is performed at a first step by calculating the increase of the cooling demand caused by the heat island over the whole city and then by translating the energy to environmental cost. Two years annual experimental data from many urban stations have been used. The results show that the ecological footprint because of the heat island ranges 1.5–2 times the city’s political area that have to be reserved every year to compensate the additional CO₂ emissions caused by the presence of the heat island effect while the maximum potential ecological footprint, provided that all buildings are air conditioned, is almost 110,000 hectares.     

下垫面对雹云形成发展的影响

利用中尺度模式WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting)对2005年5月31日发生在北京地区的一次强冰雹天气过程进行了数值模拟研究,并与观测的雷达回波、冰雹云移动路径和冰雹落区进行比较,在此基础上探讨了城市和农田两种下垫面对雹云的影响。结果表明,由于"城市热岛"效应的作用,城市下垫面的地面感热通量显著增加,有利于雹云的发展增强和大冰雹的形成,使地面累积降雹量增加,但对雹云移动路径影响不大。农田下垫面具有较大的潜热通量,局地蒸发强,有利于大量小冰雹的形成,云中冰雹含量增加,但降雹强度较弱,地面累积降雹量小。     

复杂地形条件下城市热岛及局地环流特征的数值模拟

应用基于多层城市冠层方案BEP(Building Environment Parameterization)增加室内空调系统影响的建筑物能量模式BEM(Building Energy Model)方案的WRF模式,模拟研究重庆热岛的特征、成因以及局地环流对热岛形成的影响。文中共有两个算例,一为重庆真实下垫面算例,称之为URBAN算例,二为将城市下垫面替换为耕地下垫面的对比算例,称之为NOURBAN算例。结果表明:1)WRF方案模拟结果与观测2 m气温的对比吻合较好,误差主要出现在正午温度峰值和凌晨温度谷值处,由城市下垫面特性及城市内建筑分布误差引起。2)BEP+BEM方案较好地模拟出了重庆地区的热岛分布的空间和时间特征。重庆市温度的分布受地形和城市下垫面的双重影响,越靠近城区,温度的分布受城市化影响就越大,在海拔低处,温度就越高。3)城区立体三维表面对辐射的陷阱作用导致城市表面总体反射率小,向上短波辐射小于郊区约20 W/m~2。城市表面以感热排放为主,而郊区则表现为潜热的作用占主导。夜间城市地表储热以及空调废热向大气释放,是城市热岛形成的重要原因。4)模拟区域背景风场主要为东南风,局地环流呈现出越靠近山区风速越大、城市区域风速较小的特性,体现了城市密集的建筑群对低层大气流场的空气动力学效应,以及复杂山谷地形的山谷风环流特性。在市区的西侧和东南侧均有高大山脉阻挡,山脉对城市出流的阻碍作用、气流越山与绕流运动对城市热岛的形成有一定影响。     

城市效应对福州市气候的影响

计算了福州近４０多年来气温等要素的气候倾向率，揭示了福州气候的变化规律。通过城区和郊区的气候资料对比分析，发现福州城区存在着热岛，雨岛，干岛，浑浊岛等城市气候效应，同时还存在着雾和雷暴负效应的异常现象。最后用气象学原理论讨产生异常现象原因。