Further Development of the Vegetated Urban Canopy Model Including a Grass-Covered Surface Parametrization and Photosynthesis Effects

The vegetated urban canopy model (VUCM), which includes parametrizations of urban physical processes for artificial surfaces and vegetated areas in an integrated system, has been further developed by including physical processes associated with grass-covered surfaces in urban pervious surfaces and the photosynthesis effects of urban vegetation. Using measurements made from three urban/suburban sites during the BUBBLE field campaign in 2002, the model’s performance in modelling surface fluxes (momentum flux, net radiation, sensible and latent heat fluxes and storage heat flux) and canopy air conditions (canopy air temperature and specific humidity) was critically evaluated for the non-precipitation and the precipitation days. The observed surface fluxes at the urban/suburban sites were significantly altered by precipitation as well as urban vegetation. Especially, the storage heat at urban surfaces and underlying substrates varied drastically depending on weather conditions while having an important role in the formation of a nocturnal urban surface layer. Unlike the nighttime canopy air temperature that was largely affected by the storage-heat release, the daytime canopy air conditions were highly influenced by the vertical turbulent exchange with the overlying atmosphere. The VUCM well reproduced these observed features in surface fluxes and canopy air conditions at all sites while performing well for both the non-precipitation and the precipitation days. The newly implemented parametrizations clearly improved the model’s performance in the simulation of sensible and latent heat fluxes at the sites, more noticeably at the suburban site where the vegetated area fraction is the largest among the sites. Sensitivity analyses for model input parameters in VUCM elucidated the relative importance of the morphological, aerodynamic, hydrological and radiative/thermal properties in modelling urban surface fluxes and canopy air conditions for daytime and nighttime periods. These results suggest that the VUCM has great potential for urban atmospheric numerical modelling for a range of cities and weather conditions in addition to having a better physical basis in the representation of urban vegetated areas and associated physical processes.     

Urban-suburban/rural vapour pressure and relative humidity differences at fixed hours over the area of Belgrade city

Summary  In the study, urban-suburban/rural vapour pressure and relative humidity differences at fixed hours in the Belgrade area were analysed and compared. The data from one urban, two suburban and one rural stations (0700, 1400 and 2100 hours LTC), for the period 1976–1980 were used. It has been found, on the basis of the vapour pressure differences that the atmosphere in urban areas is more humid than that in the suburban and rural areas at 0700 and 2100 hours, in the period from September to February, while from February to September the urban atmosphere is drier. At 1400 hours, urban atmosphere is drier throughout the year. However, relative humidity differences indicate that urban air is less humid than the air in suburban and rural areas throughout the year. Relationships between urban-suburban/rural vapour pressure differences and heat island intensity revealed that the local effects could be significant. Received December 23, 1999 Revised September 27, 2000     

长沙城市化进程对局地气候的影响

利用1961—2010年湖南省长沙及周边郊县共5个气象站的逐日气温、降水和相对湿度观测数据,在对各气象要素资料序列进行均一性检验和订正的基础上,以郊县站作为背景场,系统地分析了长沙城市化不同阶段对城市气候的影响。结果表明:受城市化的影响,近50年长沙市区地面气温及其上升速率远高于郊县的,城市热岛效应明显,热岛效应对市区年平均气温的增温贡献率达30%,且主要出现在20世纪90年代之后,四季中城市化贡献率的最大值出现在夏季,秋季和春季的次之,冬季的最小。50年来长沙市区和郊县年降水量差值序列呈显著增加趋势,长沙城市雨岛效应较为显著,且主要发生在春季和夏季,城市化带来的雨岛效应加速了长沙降水结构两极分化,使城市内涝发生的概率进一步增大。50年来长沙市区和郊县年平均相对湿度及其差值的变化趋势均不显著,就全年平均而言,长沙的城市干岛效应并不明显,但近20年来干岛效应显著增强;分季节来看,近50年干岛效应主要发生在夏季。     

近50a廊坊地区气温变化及其与城市发展的关系

利用1964—2011年廊坊9个气象观测站的日平均气温数据,分别利用可行性倾向估计、累计距平、M-K检验三种分析方法,分析了廊坊地区近50 a气温的气候变化特征;并通过统计分析,研究了廊坊地区年平均气温与全社会固定资产投资总额、城市总人口数、国内生产总值三项城市发展指标的关系。结果表明:廊坊市人口、GDP、全社会固定资产投资总额均与年平均气温显著相关。近48 a来,廊坊城区站与郊区站的温度差成逐步减小趋势,受城市化影响,廊坊地区年平均温度呈缓慢上升趋势,空间分布特征郊区站低于城区站,城区站每10 a增温0.5℃,郊区站每10 a增温0.41℃,10 a总增温0.42℃。     

Characterization and source apportionment of volatile organic compounds in urban and suburban Tianjin,China

Tianjin is the third largest megacity and the fastest growth area in China, and consequently faces the problems of surface ozone and haze episodes. This study measures and characterizes volatile organic compounds(VOCs), which are ozone precursors, to identify their possible sources and evaluate their contribution to ozone formation in urban and suburban Tianjin,China during the Ha Chi(Haze in China) summer campaign in 2009. A total of 107 species of ambient VOCs were detected,and the average concentrations of VOCs at urban and suburban sites were 92 and 174 ppbv, respectively. Of those, 51 species of VOCs were extracted to analyze the possible VOC sources using positive matrix factorization. The identified sources of VOCs were significantly related to vehicular activities, which specifically contributed 60% to urban and 42% to suburban VOCs loadings in Tianjin. Industrial emission was the second most prominent source of ambient VOCs in both urban and suburban areas, although the contribution of industry in the suburban area(36%) was much higher than that at the urban area(16%). We conclude that controlling vehicle emissions should be a top priority for VOC reduction, and that fast industrialization and urbanization causes air pollution to be more complex due to the combined emission of VOCs from industry and daily life, especially in suburban areas.     

南京冬季城、郊近地面湍流特征的对比分析

利用2006年2月17日—3月2日南京及其郊区的近地层湍流资料,分析了城、郊下垫面的无量纲化风速、温度的湍流特征,验证了Monin-obukhov（M-O）相似理论在城、郊下垫面的适用性,并与其他城市和地区的观测结果进行了比较,结果表明：在市区和郊区无量纲脉动风速标准差随稳定度的变化虽然都符合“1/3”次方律,但城、郊有一定差异,尤其在水平方向更为明显。在非中性时垂直向的变化要比水平向更符合“1/3”次方律;σT/｜T＊｜与Z/L关系在城、郊有一定差异,在不稳定时在市区和郊区分别按“-1/3”次和“-2/3”次方规律变化,而在稳定时市区按“-2/3”次方变化,郊区无普适函数关系。在稳定和不稳定条件下,城、郊σT/｜T＊｜都随着｜Z/L｜的减小而增大。     

2006年“珍珠”台风影响期间福建省降水酸度分布特征分析

利用2006年"珍珠"台风影响福建省期间的酸雨监测资料和新一代天气雷达回波资料,对城市降水酸度分布特征及福州市短时段降水酸度进行分析,结果表明:来自海上的台风降水呈偏碱性;登陆后台风对福建省城市降水酸度的影响与其螺旋雨带上降水云团的移动路径及城市周边污染源分布有关;"珍珠"台风的短时段降水酸度并非保持恒定,对福州市降水酸度的影响会随着台风强度、风场结构的变化及螺旋雨带上降水云团途经下垫面城市大气污染排放状况而发生改变.     

2018年北京城区和远郊区低层大气风场特征分析

利用2018年1月1日至12月31日在北京国家综合气象观测实验基地获得的风廓线雷达资料和同时期在河北香河的华北香河全大气层野外科学观测研究站获得的多普勒声雷达资料,比较分析北京城区和远郊区的低层（0～600 m）大气风场特征。结果表明:水平风速随高度增加而增大,同一高度层,远郊区的平均水平风速大于城区,且受湍流活动影响,城区和远郊区水平风速日变化趋势均为白天小于夜间。春、夏季城区风向受局地山谷风影响显著,以偏西南偏南气流为主,城区和远郊区秋冬季受冷空气活动影响,以西北风为主,且水平风向日变化特征具有季节性差异。远郊区低层大气垂直速度分布特征四季相同,正、负速度出现频率相当,日变化趋势为单峰型;城区冬春季有差异,在390 m高度以下正速度出现频率明显大于负速度,且日变化趋势在四季差异较大。北京城区和郊区风场特征差异与其他特大城市相比无特殊性,主要受大气环流、局地地形、下垫面环境等因素影响。     

春节期间北京地区交通出行规律对热岛效应和大气污染的影响

利用北京地区2006—2015年春节及其前后三周的城区、郊区站数据分析了早晚高峰期出行活动对城市热岛效应、NO_x浓度、PM_2.5浓度的影响。结果表明人口、交通、社会活动的密集程度的确会对城市热岛效应和大气污染物浓度造成一定的影响:(1)第-3、-2、+2、+3周(以下称"BG时段")与春节周(以下称"CNY时段")间的城市热岛效应差异在早高峰期间平均为0.30℃,在晚高峰期间平均为0.43℃,在其他时段平均为0.26℃,晚高峰对城市热岛效应的影响更明显;(2)BG时段与CNY时段城、郊NO_x浓度差的最大差异出现在08时,为54.95μg/L。在早高峰期间为48.55μg/L,晚高峰期间为23.44μg/L。城市晚高峰出行活动对NO_x浓度城、郊差异的贡献量随着夜间的不利扩散条件而延迟出现峰值,城市早高峰出行对NO_x浓度城、郊差异的增大作用更为突出;(3)城郊PM_2.5浓度BG时段高于CNY时段的时间出现在05—19时,早高峰期间平均差值为12.82μg/m³,晚高峰期间平均差值为8.22μg/m³。考虑到汽车尾气中的超细粒子和污染气体需要在空气中进行化学反应或者吸湿增长才能变成PM_2.5,因此PM_2.5浓度的变化情况并不完全对应于早晚高峰出行的时间,而是有所延迟。     

An investigation of urban heat island intensity (UHII) as an indicator of urban heating

The objective of this paper is to evaluate the reliability of urban heat island intensity (UHII) as an indicator of urban heating. The diurnal patterns of air and surface-temperature based UHII and variations in urban and rural area heating were analyzed and discussed. The detailed air-temperature based UHII patterns were determined in one urban and four suburban areas of Hong Kong. UHII was determined as spatially-averaged air-temperature difference between an urban/suburban area and its surrounding rural area. Additionally, reported air and surface-temperature based UHII patterns were integrated in the discussion to carry out a comprehensive analysis. The urban and rural area heating variations (i.e., the diurnal variations in net radiation, sensible heat flux, latent heat flux, and heat stored by an area) were examined in the light of UHII patterns to validate UHII as an indicator for urban heating. It is noted that the air-temperature based UHIIs were higher and positive in the night-time but lower and negative during the daytime. On the other hand, most of the surface-temperature based UHIIs, investigated through satellite data were positive during both the daytime and night-time. It is revealed that UHII can well reflect urban heating during night-time and early morning. However, the lower and negative UHII during solar peak time (daytime when solar radiation is the dominant source of heating) has seemingly not been representing urban heating.     

城市效应对福州市气候的影响

计算了福州近４０多年来气温等要素的气候倾向率，揭示了福州气候的变化规律。通过城区和郊区的气候资料对比分析，发现福州城区存在着热岛，雨岛，干岛，浑浊岛等城市气候效应，同时还存在着雾和雷暴负效应的异常现象。最后用气象学原理论讨产生异常现象原因。     

北京地区热岛效应及日较差特征

通过对2007～2010年北京地区经质量控制后的123个自动气象站气温数据采用K均值聚类方法分类, 得到城区、郊区、西部和北部山区、西南和东北部山区4个温度分区, 分析了4个分区气温的年变化、日变化和日较差变化特征, 并对北京地区热岛效应的时间变化特征进行了细致分析。结果表明:聚类分析方法可对北京地区温度很好地进行分区, 分区结果与站点的地形和下垫面情况较为吻合;不同分区温度日较差在西部和北部山区最大, 在西南部和东北部山区次之, 郊区再次之, 在城区的日较差最小;在一年中, 各温度分区以2月、5月与10月日较差较大, 其中以5月的日较差为最大;北京地区热岛效应在冬季和夜间较强, 而3～8月热岛较弱, 在夏季的白天比其它季节白天强。     

绵阳城市热岛效应分析

本文首先采用模糊c-均值聚类法和剔除法,筛选出用于计算绵阳城市热岛强度的10个城市站和15个郊区站,然后利用这25个自动气象站的逐时气温资料,分析2018年绵阳城市热岛效应不同时间尺度的变化特征。结果表明:2018年绵阳存在城市热岛效应,平均热岛强度为0.64℃,表现为弱热岛等级;四季热岛效应冬季最强,其次是春季,夏季和秋季相当;逐月热岛强度3月最大、7月最小;绵阳城市热岛效应存在明显的日变化,热岛强度夜间大于白天,日最大热岛强度几乎均出现在晚上。      

The sources and seasonal variations of organic compounds in PM<Subscript>2.5</Subscript> in Beijing and Shanghai

Fine aerosol samples were collected throughout spring, summer, and winter in 2004∼2005 at a major urban traffic junction (BNU) and a suburban location (MY) in Beijing and at a downtown site (SH) in Shanghai, China. Ten of the 16 EPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), seven fatty acids, levoglucosan, and cholesterol were identified and quantified. PAHs detected in Beijing and Shanghai were up to one order of magnitude higher than those reported in the developed countries either in urban or suburban areas, while levoglucosan was one order of magnitude lower than that in other countries for no biomass combustion in domestic heating in the mega-cities in China. PAHs showed the same seasonal trend in all sampling sites as the highest in winter and the lowest in summer, while fatty acids no pronounced seasonal variation. A significant fraction of levoglucosan from cooking with higher concentrations in urban than in suburban area contributed to the ambient atmosphere, indicating that the main source of levoglucosan in urban environment would be cooking rather than biomass burning. The relative contributions of coal combustion and vehicle exhaust sources to PAHs in fine aerosols were preliminarily estimated to be 1:2 in Beijing and 1:1 in Shanghai, revealing that the air pollution in these mega-cities in China was mainly the mixing of coal combustion with vehicle exhaust. Cooking was one of the major sources of organic aerosols in both Beijing and Shanghai.     

Simulating Australian Urban Climate in a Mesoscale Atmospheric Numerical Model

We develop an urban canopy scheme coupled to a mesoscale atmospheric numerical model and evaluate the simulated climate of an Australian city. The urban canopy scheme is based on the Town Energy Budget approach, but is modified to efficiently represent the predominately suburban component of Australian cities in regional climate simulations. Energy conservation is improved by adding a simple model of air-conditioning to prevent the urban parametrization acting as an energy sink during the Australian summer. In-canyon vegetation for suburban areas is represented by a big-leaf model, but with a largely reduced set of prognostic variables compared to previous approaches. Although we have used a recirculation/venting based parametrization of in-canyon turbulent heat fluxes that employs two canyon wall energy budgets, we avoid using a fixed canyon orientation by averaging the canyon fluxes after integrating over 180° of possible canyon orientations. The urban canopy scheme is evaluated by simulating the climate for Melbourne, Australia after coupling it to The Air Pollution Model. The combined system was found to predict a realistic climatology of air temperatures and winds when compared with observations from Environmental Protection Authority monitoring stations. The model also produced a plausible partitioning of the urban energy budget when compared to urban flux-tower studies. Overall, the urban canyon parametrization appears to have reasonable potential for studying present and predicting changes in future Australian urban climates in regional climate simulations.     

Terra和Aqua卫星MODIS 3 km AOD与北京PM_(2.5)对比分析

本文利用2014年全年北京市12个空气质量监测站的逐小时PM_(2.5)地面观测资料,以及Terra卫星和Aqua卫星的MODIS 3 km气溶胶光学厚度(AOD)产品,分析了地面PM_(2.5)和两颗卫星AOD的时空分布特征,并在时空匹配的基础上,建立了AOD与PM_(2.5)浓度之间的回归模型。结果表明:PM_(2.5)浓度在城区高、郊区低,最低值位于定陵站,城区站和郊区站的逐时PM_(2.5)浓度的日变化分别呈"双峰型"和"单峰型";两颗卫星AOD数值也均是城区高、郊区低,沿山区的边界有明显的AOD梯度,且城区上午Terra卫星的AOD高于下午Aqua卫星的AOD,而郊区上、下午的AOD基本相同;Aqua卫星AOD与PM_(2.5)的确定系数(R2)较Terra卫星AOD与PM_(2.5)的确定系数平均高0.11,且城区站点两颗卫星AOD与PM_(2.5)相关性均较郊区站点AOD与PM_(2.5)相关性偏高;综合来看,Aqua卫星的AOD与城区的PM_(2.5)相关系数最高,即Aqua卫星的AOD更适于监测和反演城区地面的PM_(2.5)。     

2014-2017年西安市城市热岛、冷岛精细化时空特征分析

选取1971—2017年7个国家级气象站的气温资料,分析年代际气温变化特征及城郊温差、城县温差;选取2014—2017年103个国家考核区域气象站及7个国家级气象站逐时气温资料,利用标准化相对气温法,研究西安市城市热岛、冷岛的年、季平均空间分布特征,以及逐日热岛、冷岛变化规律。结果显示:1971—2017年城区、郊区和郊县气温均呈上升趋势,城区增温速率最大,郊县增温速率最小,进入21世纪后,城市热岛效应较为显著。西安市城市热岛、冷岛现象明显,且均呈"多中心"特征,热岛中心多为老城区及旅游中心,建筑物面积和人口密度占绝对优势;冷岛中心多为地势较高、水域绿被覆盖较大、非人口密集区的秦岭坡脚线附近。城区代表站的年、春季、夏季、秋季基本处于平稳状态,年、春季、夏季06—07时热岛强度最大,秋季、冬季23时热岛强度最大;郊区代表站和郊县代表站的年及四季热岛、冷岛强度均有明显的日变化特征,且变化趋势相反;郊区代表站10时热岛转为冷岛,春、夏季16—17时转为热岛,年及秋、冬两季19—20时转为热岛;郊县代表站年、春季、夏季06—07时冷岛强度最大,秋季、冬季2时冷岛强度最大,08时后冷岛开始减弱,12—13时为最弱后开始增强。     

上海城市集群化发展显著增强局地高温热浪事件

上海作为中国城市集群化发展的典型代表,经过30余年圈层式、集群化扩张,城市建设用地面积比例高达47.9%,接近50%的生态阈值。城市群快速扩张诱发了一个以徐家汇为中心覆盖周边40 km的区域性热岛,影响高温热浪的时空分布。基于DMSP/OLS遥感夜间灯光数据构建的城市发展指数,客观地反映出1992—2013年上海西郊嘉定、青浦和东郊的浦东集群化发展特征最凸出。利用Chow检验最优分段建模法,研究发现高温热浪期间城市群热岛突变转折与区县城市发展指数超过60%的年份相对应。城市发展指数超过60%后,近郊城市继续扩张将缩小城、郊气象站的温差,诱发更大范围热岛,增强高温热浪。1977—2000年近郊区县城市发展指数低于60%,高温热浪各要素项城郊差值显著上升,而2000年西郊城市发展指数超过60%后,和市中心差值减小,快速城市化明显增强西郊高温热浪强度和持续时间。1978年以来上海西郊与远郊高温日数差值增加了1.6倍,平均气温差值增加了34.4%,平均最高气温差值增加了41.7%。高温热浪期间遥感数据显示,向西郊伸展的城市群地表温度高值区规模扩大了32.8%,是西郊高温热浪增强的驱动因子。     

Turbulence Structure In Unstable Conditions Over Various Surfaces

A comprehensive study of the turbulent structure of the atmospheric boundary layer in unstable conditions has been carried out using turbulence data obtained from the Gobi desert, grassland, suburban and urban sites based on the same instrumentation, data acquisition and data processing systems. The normalized standard deviations of u and v over the suburban and urban sites are systematically smaller than those over the Gobi desert and grassland sites. However, the normalized standard deviations of w, temperature and humidity q over the suburban and urban sites are quite close to those over the Gobi desert and grassland sites. The normalized humidity standard deviations are quite similar to those of temperature over the grassland and suburban sites. The temperature and humidity spectra are found to be independentof atmospheric stability in all frequency ranges, but spectra obtained from the Gobi desert and grassland sites reveal flatter peaks than those of the suburban and urban sites in the lower frequency range. The normalized spectral curves of temperature and humidity are independent of atmospheric stability both at high and low frequencies. The spectral characteristics of humidity over the grassland and suburban sites aresimilar to those of temperature, but the humidity spectra over the Gobi desert site are quite different from temperature spectra due to evaporation and/or large eddies in the boundary layer.     

空气质量多模式系统在广州应用及对PM10预报效果评估

介绍了广州空气质量多模式系统并评估其对2010年9月广州市的气象要素和PM10日均浓度的24 h的预报效果.评估结果表明：模式系统较好地预测了气象要素的变化,但高估了风速;各空气质量模式能合理预测广州PM10浓度的时空变化,预报效果均处于可接受范围内(平均分数偏差MFB小于±60%且平均分数误差MFE小于75%),部分模式可达到优秀水平(MFB小于±30%且MFE小于50%),但同时各模式在郊区均预测偏高而在市区偏低;总体上,模式在广州郊区的PM10预报效果优于市区.模式间对比表明,在本次业务预报实践中,不存在最优的单模式,同一模式对不同的统计指标、不同的站点,其预报效果可能存在差异,基于算术平均集成各模式结果未能获得最优的预报效果.优化排放源空间分布并引进更好的集成预报方法(如权重平均、神经网络、多元回归等)是未来改进广州空气质量多模式系统预报效果的可能途径.