The 2020 Summer Floods and 2020/21 Winter Extreme Cold Surges in China and the 2020 Typhoon Season in the Western North Pacific

China experienced significant flooding in the summer of 2020 and multiple extreme cold surges during the winter of 2020/21. Additionally, the 2020 typhoon season had below average activity with especially quiet activity during the first half of the season in the western North Pacific(WNP). Sea surface temperature changes in the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans all contributed to the heavy rainfall in China, but the Atlantic and Indian Oceans seem to have played dominant roles. Enhancement and movement of the Siberian High caused a wavier pattern in the jet stream that allowed cold polar air to reach southward, inducing cold surges in China. Large vertical wind shear and low humidity in the WNP were responsible for fewer typhoons in the first half of the typhoon season. Although it is known that global warming can increase the frequency of extreme weather and climate events, its influences on individual events still need to be quantified.Additionally, the extreme cold surge during 16–18 February 2021 in the United States shares similar mechanisms with the winter 2020/21 extreme cold surges in China.     

1957-2005年河南省降水和温度极端事件变化

利用河南省1957-2005年逐日降水,最高、最低和日平均气温资料,分析了近50 a河南省极端天气事件的变化趋势。结果表明：1957-2005年河南省暴雨日数、极端降水事件和严重干燥事件发生频率都在增加,但其线性趋势并不显著;暴雨和极端降水的变化趋势呈明显的南北差异;异常高温事件增加而异常低温事件减少,暖冬的趋势比较显著;高温日数和低温日数都显著减少,其变化趋势的空间分布具有很好的一致性。     

1957-2005年河南省降水和温度极端事件变化

 利用河南省1957-2005年逐日降水,最高、最低和日平均气温资料,分析了近50 a河南省极端天气事件的变化趋势。结果表明：1957-2005年河南省暴雨日数、极端降水事件和严重干燥事件发生频率都在增加,但其线性趋势并不显著;暴雨和极端降水的变化趋势呈明显的南北差异;异常高温事件增加而异常低温事件减少,暖冬的趋势比较显著;高温日数和低温日数都显著减少,其变化趋势的空间分布具有很好的一致性。     

2006年极端天气和气候事件及其他相关事件的概要回顾

2006年1月中旬欧洲东部地区经历10年来的最低温天气;2月,非洲南部地区遭遇20年以来的最强降水;2006年上半年美国路易斯安那州经历111年来最干旱的时期;7月,欧美地区经历破纪录的高温炎热天气;菲律宾、印尼、印度等东南亚国家遭受暴雨洪灾。2006年春季,我国北方地区遭受18次沙尘天气的侵袭;夏季重庆等地区遭遇百年一遇的大旱;我国东南沿海等地受到多次强台风袭击;波及全国31个省(市、区)的冰雹、雷雨等强对流天气……。2006年是全球有气象记录以来的第6个高温年,极端天气和气候灾害并没有缓和的迹象;我国又经历了许多极端天气和气候灾害。     

“21·7”河南特大暴雨气象和水文雨量观测对比

2021年“21·7”河南特大暴雨打破我国大陆小时气象观测纪录,该极端天气事件位列2021年中国十大天气气候事件第2位。已有研究使用气象地面站雨量观测资料对此次过程进行雨情分析和极值统计,但降水时空分布不均匀,单一来源资料存在不确定性。通过对比气象站和水文站雨量资料,分析两套业务观测系统记录“21·7”河南特大暴雨过程的异同,发现气象站和水文站雨量在时间和空间分布上具有很好的一致性,两者不同等级的累积降雨落区、逐日和逐时降雨演变趋势均一致性强,但累积雨量和雨强极值的空间分布和数值存在差异,两套资料在暴雨中心（过程雨量大于600 mm）的系统性偏差小于1%。气象站和水文站的融合资料呈现比单一资料更细致的降雨分布、更全面的演变特征。此外,基于融合资料发现累积雨量排名前3位的城市（郑州、鹤壁、新乡）均具有累积雨量大、小时雨强极强、强降雨集中、雨强突然增长的特征,鹤壁和新乡最强降雨时段分别比郑州晚26 h和28 h。     

2009年极端天气和气候事件及其他相关事件的概要回顾

2009年初欧洲遭遇罕见寒流,大雪低温造成多人死亡;南半球夏季,高温热浪导致澳大利亚发生严重火灾,上百人丧生火海;9月,台风"凯萨娜"先后袭击菲律宾和越南,造成近500万人受灾;11月,飓风"艾达"袭击美洲多国,导致20多万人受灾;秋末冬初,北半球中高纬多地经历严寒天气,创下降雪偏早新纪录。在我国,强台风"莫拉克"重创台湾;50年来最严重春旱困扰黑龙江、内蒙古等地;50年罕见秋旱灼伤南方大地;11月,罕见强对流天气侵袭我国7省。2009年是1850年有气象记录以来第5个高温年,全球极端天气和气候灾害频发。     

温室效应对我国东部地区气候影响的高分辨率数值试验

使用RegCM3区域气候模式,单向嵌套NASA/NCAR 的全球环流模式FvGCM的输出结果,对中国东部地区进行了在实际温室气体浓度下当代1961~1990年和在IPCC A2温室气体排放情景下21世纪末期2071~2100年各30年时间长度,水平分辨率为20 km的气候变化模拟试验。首先分析全球和区域模式对中国东部地区当代气候的模拟情况,结果表明全球模式对中国东部地区气温的总体分布型模拟较好,但存在冷偏差,区域模式在对这个冷偏差有所纠正的同时,提供了气温地理分布更详细的信息。全球模式模拟的年降水中心位于长江流域,与观测差别较大,区域模式对此同样也有改进,降水高值区主要位于区域南部,并表现出较强的地形强迫特征。区域模式的模拟结果还表明,至21世纪末期,在温室效应作用下,中国东部的气温将明显升高,年平均气温的升高值在2.7~4.0℃之间,其中北部升温大于南部,冬季升温大于夏季。冬季升温表现出明显的随纬度增加而增加的分布型。模拟区域内年平均降水将增加,增加值一般在10%以上,部分地区达到30%。降水增加在夏季较明显,区域内以普遍增加为主,冬季降水自山东半岛至湖南地区将减少,其他地区增加。此外,对夏季高温日数和冬季低温日数及年平均大雨日数的变化也进行了分析。     

土壤湿度年际变化对中国区域极端气候事件模拟的影响研究Ⅱ.敏感性试验分析

利用NCARCAM3.1大气环流模式,设计了有、无土壤湿度年际异常的两组数值试验,探讨了土壤湿度年际异常对极端气候事件模拟的可能影响。结果表明,模式模拟的极端气候事件对土壤湿度异常十分敏感,土壤湿度异常对极端气候指标的多年平均空间分布、年际变率以及年际变化均具有重要影响。当不考虑土壤湿度的年际异常时:(1)模拟的暖夜日数、暖昼日数和热浪持续指数的发生频次在全国范围内均明显减少,而霜冻日数则明显增加。极端降水指标的响应表现出明显的空间差异,极端降水频次在江淮流域明显减小,而极端降水强度则表现为东北减弱、长江流域增强;中雨日数和持续湿期在我国大部分地区减少。(2)极端气温指标的年际变率在我国大部分地区呈减小趋势;而极端降水事件的变化则较为复杂,极端降水频次和极端降水强度的年际变率在长江以南有所增强,而北方地区则有所减弱。中雨日数和持续湿期的年际变率在我国呈现出较为一致的减少趋势。(3)模式对暖夜日数、霜冻日数的年际变化的模拟能力明显下降,并对4个极端降水指标的年际变化的模拟能力在全国多数区域均有不同程度的下降。     

Observed Trends in Severe Weather Conditions Based on Humidex,Wind Chill,and Heavy Rainfall Events in Canada for 1953–2012

Observed trends in severe weather conditions based on public alert statements issued by Environment Canada are examined for Canada. Changes in extreme heat and extreme cold events represented by various humidex and wind chill indices are analyzed for 1953–2012 at 126 climatological stations. Changes in heavy rainfall events based on rainfall amounts provided by tipping bucket rainfall gauges are analyzed for 1960–2012 at 285 stations. The results show that extreme heat events, defined as days with at least one hourly humidex value above 30, have increased significantly at more than 36% of the stations, most of which are located south of 55°N; days with nighttime hourly humidex values remaining above 20 have increased significantly at more than 52% of the stations, most of which are located south of 50°N. Extreme cold events represented by days with at least one hourly wind chill value below ?30 have decreased significantly at more than 76% of the stations across the country. No consistent changes were found in heavy rainfall events. Because city residents are very vulnerable to severe weather events, detailed results on changes in extreme heat, extreme cold, and heavy rainfall events are also provided for ten urban centres.     

华北地区小时极端降水的非稳态研究

本文以华北五省为研究区，基于1960—2014年小时降水数据建立1、2、3、6、12和24 h极端降水序列，对比分析稳态和非稳态假设下极端降水重现期估计的差异。研究表明：1960―2014年华北不同时间极端降水的变化趋势略有不同，时间越短呈上升趋势的站点越多，1~3 h的极端降水呈上升趋势的站点较多，稳态和非稳态假设下的20~100 a一遇重现期平均差异较大，其中，1 h极端降水的显著上升站点中，二者的平均相对误差达30%~43%；而6~24 h极端降水中，呈下降趋势的站点增多，其中，24 h极端降水显著下降站点中，二者的平均相对误差达-43%~-32%；无显著趋势站点，二者的平均相对误差大部分介于-10%~10%。随着重现期增大，二者差异的不确定性区间增大，不同变化趋势站点表现一致。研究发现，华北地区短历时极端降水强度增加，稳态假设下极端降水的重现期会严重低估。因此，选用非稳态假设估计极端降水的重现期，将降低极端降水的灾害风险。     

中国极端天气气候研究——“地球系统与全球变化”重点专项项目简介及最新进展

全球变暖背景下,极端天气气候事件频发,并表现出群发性、持续性、复合性等特点,不可预测性增加;持续性强降水、极端低温、复合型极端高温干旱、群发性热浪和台风等极端天气气候事件对我国经济社会和可持续发展影响巨大。然而,上述极端天气气候事件的新特征、关键过程和机理尚不完全清楚,重大极端事件的预报预测水平亟待提升。文章首先简要介绍“地球系统与全球变化”重点专项项目“中国极端天气气候事件的形成机理及其预测和归因”的基本情况。项目拟在分析全球变化背景下对我国造成重大影响的极端天气气候事件新特征的基础上,深入研究多尺度海-陆-气耦合过程影响极端天气气候事件的机理,挖掘极端天气气候事件次季节-季节预测的前兆信号;发展动力与物理统计相结合的极端事件预测新方法,研制针对中国极端事件的新一代高分辨率数值预报与检测归因系统。文章重点总结了自2022年12月项目立项至今取得的最新研究成果和进展。     

土壤湿度年际变化对中国区域极端气候事件模拟的影响研究 I. 基于CAM3.1的模式评估

利用NCAR大气模式CAM3.1对中国区域近40年的极端气候事件进行了模拟试验;在此基础上, 利用1961～2000年中国区域452站的逐日最高、最低气温和降水资料, 从气候平均、年际变化和长期变化趋势等方面全面评估了该模式对中国极端气候事件的模拟能力。结果表明:(1)模式对中国区域极端气候指数气候平均态的大尺度空间分布特征具有一定的模拟能力;模式对极端降水指标空间分布的模拟能力较好, 而对极端气温指标的模拟较差;模式对极端气候指标的模拟存在系统性的偏差, 模拟的极端降水的系统性偏差要远大于对极端温度的模拟。(2)模式对极端气温指数的年际变化特征具有较强的模拟能力, 而对极端降水指数的年际变化基本没有模拟能力;模式模拟的各极端降水指标的年际变幅与观测存在较大的偏差。(3)模式较好地模拟出了暖夜和暖昼指数在中国大部分区域的增加趋势, 但变幅较实测偏小;模式对热浪持续指数长期趋势的模拟则相对略差。模式对极端气温指标长期趋势的模拟能力总体优于对极端降水指标的模拟。模式对极端降水频次和中雨日数长期趋势的模拟尚可, 但对持续湿期长期趋势的空间分布模拟较差。研究结果可为该模式用于极端气候的模拟研究提供一定参考。     

Quantifying Changes in Extreme Weather Events in Response to Warmer Global Temperature

Global warming is expected to affect both the frequency and severity of extreme weather events, though projections of the response of these events to climate warming remain highly uncertain. The range of changes reported in the climate modelling literature is very large, sometimes leading to contradictory results for a given extreme weather event. Much of this uncertainty stems from the incomplete understanding of the physics of extreme weather processes, the lack of representation of mesoscale processes in coarse-resolution climate models, and the effect of natural climate variability at multi-decadal time scales. However, some of the spread in results originates simply from the variety of scenarios for future climate change used to drive climate model simulations, which hampers the ability to make generalizations about predicted changes in extreme weather events. In this study, we present a meta-analysis of the literature on projected future extreme weather events in order to quantify expected changes in weather extremes as a function of a common metric of global mean temperature increases. We find that many extreme weather events are likely to be significantly affected by global warming. In particular, our analysis indicates that the overall frequency of global tropical cyclones could decrease with global warming but that the intensity of these storms, as well as the frequency of the most intense cyclones could increase, particularly in the northwestern Pacific basin. We also found increases in the intensity of South Asian monsoonal rainfall, the frequency of global heavy precipitation events, the number of North American severe thunderstorm days, North American drought conditions, and European heatwaves, with rising global mean temperatures. In addition, the periodicity of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation may decrease, which could, in itself, influence extreme weather frequency in many areas of the climate system.     

近40年我国极端温度变化趋势和季节特征

利用1961—2000年我国194个测站逐日最高温度和最低温度器测资料,结合具有实际意义的季节极端温度指数,分析了我国近40年极端温度事件的年变化趋势和季节特征。对年极端气候指数的研究表明:绝对阈值定义的冷暖指数由于无法考虑南北气候差异,其结果不理想。百分比阈值所得的冷暖指数中,冷日指数和暖日指数具有不对称性,冷夜指数和暖夜指数具有较强的对称性。对季节极端温度指数研究表明:冬季极端冷指数变化趋势最为明显,夏季极端暖指数的变化趋势次之,春、秋两季极端冷指数的变化趋势不明显;年和季节尺度的极端冷暖指数均反映出增暖趋势。     

Trends in Precipitation Concentration and Extremes in the Mediterranean Penedès-Anoia Region, Ne Spain

The high variability of the Mediterranean climate from year to year and within each year makes it difficult to assess changes that could be associated with a climate change. In this paper some indices, such as changes in the precipitation concentration during the year, maximum 1-day and 5-day precipitation, number of wet days (total and those with precipitation higher than the 75th and 95th percentile), magnitude and frequency of extreme events (considered as the rainfall higher than that corresponding to the 99th percentile), fraction of annual total precipitation due to events exceeding the 95th and 99th percentile, strength of the events, and length and frequency of dry period (days between consecutive rains) are evaluated for the Penedès-Anoia region (NE Spain). A 80-year daily dataset (1923–2002) and two 40-year series were used to assess possible trends. The indices indicate an increase in precipitation in winter and summer and a positive trend of concentration in autumn, with a higher number of extreme events separated by longer dry periods. The total number of wet days per year increased, although it was irregularly distributed over the year, with an increase in the extremes and in the fraction of total rainfall that these events represent in autumn and winter, and with an increase of the strength of the events in autumn. These changes in rainfall distribution have negative effects on water availability for crops and contribute to accelerate erosion processes in the area.     

极端天气气候事件监测与预测研究进展及其应用综述

极端天气气候事件(简称"极端事件")分为单站极端事件和区域性极端事件。本文回顾了极端事件的研究进展,首先回顾了单站极端温度、极端降水和干旱事件的观测研究及相关指数,进而对近年来不断增多的区域性极端事件研究做了简要回顾,最后还回顾了极端事件气候预测研究进展。同时,对国内外在极端事件气候监测和预测业务现状进行了初步总结,并指出:在极端事件气候监测方面中国的业务产品较丰富,并率先开展了针对区域性极端事件的监测业务,但在产品表现形式上缺乏统一组织,特别是英文产品表现力严重不足;在极端事件气候预测方面,国家气候中心发展了两种方法:一个是基于物理统计的BP-CCA和OSR的干旱预测方法,另一个基于国家气候中心月动力延伸预报模式(DERF)的高温预测方法。最后,对极端事件监测和预测业务发展及相关科学问题给出展望,指出应根据极端事件的业务需求继续加强相关研究和业务能力建设。     

Recent trends in observed temperature and precipitation extremes in the Yangtze River basin,China

Summary The present study is an analysis of the observed extreme temperature and precipitation trends over Yangtze from 1960 to 2002 on the basis of the daily data from 108 meteorological stations. The intention is to identify whether or not the frequency or intensity of extreme events has increased with climate warming over Yangtze River basin in the last 40 years. Both the Mann-Kendall (MK) trend test and simple linear regression were utilized to detect monotonic trends in annual and seasonal extremes. Trend tests reveal that the annual and seasonal mean maximum and minimum temperature trend is characterized by a positive trend and that the strongest trend is found in the winter mean minimum in the Yangtze. However, the observed significant trend on the upper Yangtze reaches is less than that found on the middle and lower Yangtze reaches and for the mean maximum is much less than that of the mean minimum. From the basin-wide point of view, significant increasing trends are observed in 1-day extreme temperature in summer and winter minimum, but there is no significant trend for 1-day maximum temperature. Moreover, the number of cold days ≤0 °C and ≤10 °C shows significant decrease, while the number of hot days (daily value ≥35 °C) shows only a minor decrease. The upward trends found in the winter minimum temperature in both the mean and the extreme value provide evidence of the warming-up of winter and of the weakening of temperature extremes in the Yangtze in last few decades. The monsoon climate implies that precipitation amount peaks in summer as does the occurrence of heavy rainfall events. While the trend test has revealed a significant trend in summer rainfall, no statistically significant change was observed in heavy rain intensity. The 1-day, 3-day and 7-day extremes show only a minor increase from a basin-wide point of view. However, a significant positive trend was found for the number of rainstorm days (daily rainfall ≥50 mm). The increase of rainstorm frequency, rather than intensity, on the middle and lower reaches contributes most to the positive trend in summer precipitation in the Yangtze.     

Simulation of regional climate change under the IPCC A2 scenario in southeast China

A variable-grid atmospheric general circulation model, LMDZ, with a local zoom over southeast China is used to investigate regional climate changes in terms of both means and extremes. Two time slices of 30?years are chosen to represent, respectively, the end of the 20th century and the middle of the 21st century. The lower-boundary conditions (sea-surface temperature and sea-ice extension) are taken from the outputs of three global coupled climate models: Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace (IPSL), Centre National de Recherches Météorologiques (CNRM) and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL). Results from a two-way nesting system between LMDZ-global and LMDZ-regional are also presented. The evaluation of simulated temperature and precipitation for the current climate shows that LMDZ reproduces generally well the spatial distribution of mean climate and extreme climate events in southeast China, but the model has systematic cold biases in temperature and tends to overestimate the extreme precipitation. The two-way nesting model can reduce the ??cold bias?? to some extent compared to the one-way nesting model. Results with greenhouse gas forcing from the SRES-A2 emission scenario show that there is a significant increase for mean, daily-maximum and minimum temperature in the entire region, associated with a decrease in the number of frost days and an increase in the heat wave duration. The annual frost days are projected to significantly decrease by 12?C19?days while the heat wave duration to increase by about 7?days. A warming environment gives rise to changes in extreme precipitation events. Except two simulations (LMDZ/GFDL and LMDZ/IPSL2) that project a decrease in maximum 5-day precipitation (R5d) for winter, other precipitation extremes are projected to increase over most of southeast China in all seasons, and among the three global scenarios. The domain-averaged values for annual simple daily intensity index (SDII), R5d and fraction of total rainfall from extreme events (R95t) are projected to increase by 6?C7, 10?C13 and 11?C14%, respectively, relative to their present-day values. However, it is clear that more research will be needed to assess the uncertainties on the projection in future of climate extremes at local scale.     

CHANGE TRENDS OF EXTREME CLIMATE EVENTS IN CHINA

The variations of extreme climate events such as cold wave, typhoon, hot and cold days havebeen discussed using the recent 45-year data. The reductions of nationwide cold wave activities andannual cold day number in northern China all have close relationship with warming winters,especially during 1980s and early 1990s. Decrements of annual hot day number are associated withcooling summers. The typhoon variation has connection with the tropical Pacific sea surfacetemperature conditions. The increments of drought/flood events since 1980s may be connectedindirectly with climate warming up significantly since 1980s. The climate variability of theseextreme climate events has decreased with time since 1980s.