An Analysis of Thermally-Related Surface Rainfall Budgets Associated with Convective and Stratiform Rainfall

Both water vapor and heat processes play key roles in producing surface rainfall.While the water vapor effects of sea surface temperature and cloud radiative and microphysical processes on surface rainfall have been investigated in previous studies,the thermal effects on rainfall are analyzed in this study using a series of two-dimensional equilibrium cloud-resolving model experiments forced by zonally-uniform,constant,large-scale zonal wind and zero large-scale vertical velocity.The analysis of thermally-related surface rainfall budget reveals that the model domain mean surface rain rate is primarily associated with the mean infrared cooling rate.Convective rainfall and transport of hydrometeor concentration from convective regions to raining stratiform regions corresponds to the heat divergence over convective regions,whereas stratiform rainfall corresponds to the transport of hydrometeor concentration from convective regions and heat divergence over raining stratiform regions.The heat divergence over convective regions is mainly balanced by the heat convergence over rainfall-free regions,which is,in turn,offset by the radiative cooling over rainfall-free regions.The sensitivity experiments of rainfall to the effects of sea surface temperature and cloud radiative and microphysical processes show that the sea surface temperature and cloud processes affect convective rainfall through the changes in infrared cooling rate over rainfall-free regions and transport rate of heat from convective regions to rainfall-free regions.     

Diurnal responses of tropical convective and stratiform rainfall to diurnally varying sea surface temperature

Two experiments were carried out using a two-dimensional cloud-resolving model to study the effects of diurnally varying sea surface temperature (SST) on diurnal variations of tropical convective and stratiform rainfall. Experiment SST29 is imposed by a constant SST of 29°C, whereas experiment SST29D is imposed by a diurnally varying SST with a time-mean of 29°C and a diurnal difference of 1°C. Both experiments are also zonally uniformly imposed by a zero vertical velocity and a constant zonal wind, and are integrated for 40 days to reach quasi-equilibrium states. The model domain mean surface rain rate is larger in SST29D than in SST29 in the late afternoon, when the ocean surface is warmer in SST29D. Convective-stratiform rainfall partitioning analysis reveals that the late-afternoon convective rainfall is larger in SST29D than in SST29, whereas the stratiform rainfalls are similar in both experiments. Further analysis of surface rainfall and cloud microphysical budgets over convective regions shows that, in the late afternoon, the larger amount of water vapor is pumped into the non-raining region through the larger surface evaporation associated with the warmer SST. This water vapor is then transported into convective regions to produce more vapor condensation and greater collection of cloud water by raindrops and larger convective rainfall in SST29D than in SST29.     

Cloud microphysical and precipitation responses to a large-scale forcing in the tropical deep convective regime

Summary Cloud microphysical and precipitation responses to a large-scale forcing in the tropical deep convective regime are investigated based on hourly zonally-averaged, vertically-integrated simulation data from a two-dimensional coupled ocean-cloud resolving atmosphere model. The model is forced by the large-scale vertical velocity and zonal wind observed and derived from TOGA COARE for a 50-day period. The accretion of cloud water by graupel induces growth of graupel that enhances raindrops through its melting during a weak-forcing period, whereas the large deposition rate of vapor associated with a large upper-tropospheric upward motion causes growth of snow from the conversion of cloud ice and enhancement of graupel from the accretion of snow during a strong-forcing period. The local changes of raindrops and graupel switch from the negative to positive values as the forcing strengthens in the weak-forcing case, whereas the variations of cloud hydrometeors are not sensitive to the strength of the forcing in the strong-forcing case. Phase analysis indicates that cloud water leads the surface rain rate by 1 hour. The surface rain rate can be calculated based on the conservation of vapor and cloud hydrometeors and the budget of raindrops. The vapor source and local changes of cloud hydrometeors could have impacts in the calculation of the surface rain rate. The vapor source determines the surface rain rate in the strong-forcing case whereas the cloud variations could become important in the weak-forcing case. In the budget of raindrops, the sum of the collection of cloud water by raindrops, the melting of graupel, and the evaporation of raindrops determines the surface rain rate in the strong-forcing case whereas the other rain-related microphysical processes become important in the weak-forcing case.     

“碧利斯”(0604)暴雨过程不同类型降水云微物理特征分析

本文利用"碧利斯"(0604)暴雨增幅过程高分辨率的数值模拟资料, 将降水分成对流降水和层云降水, 对比分析了不同类型降水云微物理特征和过程的差异, 探讨了不同类型降水对暴雨增幅的贡献, 结果指出:(1)暴雨增幅前, 降水基本为层云降水, 对流降水只存在于零星的几个小区域, 暴雨增幅发生时段, 对流降水所占比例较暴雨增幅前有显著增加, 平均降水强度达层云降水强度的3倍多。(2)暴雨增幅时段, 云系发展更加旺盛, 云中各种水凝物含量较增幅前明显增加, 其中, 对流和层云降水区云中水凝物含量均有一定程度增长, 但对流降水区增加更显著;而无论增幅前还是增幅时段, 对流降水区云中水凝物含量均要明显大于层云降水区, 并且两者的这种差异随着地面降水强度的增强而增大。(3)暴雨增幅前后, 对流降水区雨滴的两个主要来源最终均可以追踪到云水, 通过云水与大的液相粒子(雨滴)和大的固相粒子(雪)之间、以及大的固相粒子(雪和霰)之间的相互作用和转化, 造成雨滴增长, 并最终形成地面降水, 而层云降水区中与雨滴形成相关的上述主要云微物理过程明显变弱, 但层云降水区中暴雨增幅时段的上述过程又要强于增幅前, 说明层云降水对暴雨增幅也有一定贡献。     

A cloud-resolving modeling study of short-term surface rainfall processes

The short-term tropical surface rainfall processes in rainfall regions (raining stratiform and convective regions) and rainfall-free regions (non-raining stratiform and clear-sky regions) are investigated based on the hourly data from a two-dimensional cloud-resolving model simulation. The model is integrated over a 21-day period with imposed zonally uniform vertical velocity, zonal wind, horizontal temperature and vapor advection, and sea surface temperature from the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE). The analysis of the model domain-mean surface rainfall budget reveals that surface rainfall is mainly associated with water vapor convergence and local atmospheric drying. The mean surface rainfall lags the mean water vapor convergence by 3?h. The convective?Cstratiform rainfall separation analysis shows that convective rainfall is associated with water vapor convergence, whereas stratiform rainfall is related to the local atmospheric drying and hydrometeor loss/convergence. The transport of water vapor from rainfall-free regions to rainfall regions creates the main water vapor source for rainfall while it balances local atmospheric drying in rainfall-free regions. Surface evaporation plays a minor role in short-term surface rainfall processes.     

安徽滁州夏季一次飑线过程的雨滴谱特征

选取2014年7月31日安徽滁州一次飑线过程,使用地基雨滴谱仪资料分析此次过程的雨滴谱特征。根据雷达回波和地面降水强度将这次降水过程划分为对流降水、过渡性降水和层云降水,并以10 mm·h-1为临界值将对流降水进一步划分为对流前沿降水、对流中心降水、对流后沿降水。结果表明:对流中心降水、过渡性降水、层云降水的质量加权直径均比较稳定,平均值分别为1.8 mm, 1.0 mm, 1.7 mm。对流降水的标准化截距相比层云降水更大。对流中心降水各粒径段雨滴数浓度均较高;层云降水小雨滴浓度较低,且有少量大雨滴;过渡性降水由小雨滴组成。当雨水含量相同时,层云降水的质量加权直径相比对流降水更大。当雨强相同时,层云降水的反射率因子相比对流中心降水更大。更为精细的降水类型划分可有效改善Z-I关系。     

Regional dependence of microphysical and radiative effects of ice clouds on vertical structures of tropical tropospheric temperature

Regional dependence of microphysical and radiative effects of ice clouds on vertical structure of tropical tropospheric temperature is examined by analyzing thermodynamic budgets over clear sky, raining stratiform, convective, and non-raining stratiform regions with three two-dimensional sensitivity equilibrium cloud-resolving model simulation data. The decrease in the mean tropospheric cooling caused by radiative effects of ice clouds results from the decreases in local atmospheric cooling over clear sky regions around 12?C16?km through the decrease in heat divergence and below 7.5?km through the decrease in radiative cooling and over non-raining stratiform regions around 6?C13?km through the increase in latent heat. The increase in the mean tropospheric cooling caused by microphysical effects of ice clouds results from the increases in local atmospheric cooling over clear sky regions through the decrease in heat convergence below 4?km the increase in radiative cooling around 4?C8?km and over non-raining stratiform regions through the increase in radiative cooling around 7?C10?km. The raining regions do not show any significant thermal changes due to the cancellation between heat convergence and latent heat.     

CONVECTIVE-STRATIFORM RAINFALL PARTITION BY RADIANCE-DERIVED CLOUD CONTENT: A MODELING STUDY

A new scheme that separates convective-stratiform rainfall is developed using threshold values of liquid water path (LWP) and ice water path (IWP). These cloud contents can be predicted with radiances at the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) channels (23.8, 31.4, 89, and 150 GHz) through linear regression models. The scheme is demonstrated by an analysis of a two-dimensional cloud resolving model simulation that is imposed by a forcing derived from the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE). The rainfall is considered convective if associated LWP is larger than 1.91 mm or IWP is larger than 1.70 mm. Otherwise, the rainfall is stratiform. The analysis of surface rainfall budget demonstrates that this new scheme is physically meaningful.     

NUMERICAL SIMULATION STUDY OF CLOUD INTERACTION AND FORMATION MECHANISM OF HEAVY RAIN IN MIXED CONVECTIVE-STRATIFORM CLOUD

Using the numerical model of mixed convective-stratiform clouds(MCS)in the paper(Hong1997)and the averaged stratification of torrential rain processes,the evolution processes,interaction of the two kinds of clouds,structure and the precipitation features in the MCS toproduce heavy rain are simulated and studied,and the physical reasons of producing torrential rainare analysed.The results indicate that the stratiform cloud surrounding the convective cloudbecomes weakened and dissipates in the developing and enhancing of the convective cloud,and therainfall rate and water content in the stratiform cloud increase as the distance from the convectivecloud becomes larger.The numerical experiments find out that the stratiform cloud provides abenificial developing environment for the convective cloud,i.e.,the saturated environment and theconvergence field in the stratiform cloud help to lengthen the life cycle of the convective cloud,produce sustained rainfall with high intensity and intermittent precipitation with ultra-highintensity.These and the ice phase microphysical processes are the main factors for the torrentialrain formation and the MCS is a very effective precipitation system.     

三江源隆宝高寒湿地不同云系降水雨滴谱特征

利用2019年5～10月布设于三江源地区隆宝高寒湿地的激光雨滴谱仪观测资料,分析高原山区夏秋季层状云降水和对流云降水雨滴微物理特征、平均雨滴谱分布、下落速度及Z-R关系.结果表明:三江源隆宝地区夏秋季对流云降水和层状云降水的雨滴微物理特征具有一定程度的相似性,对流云降水雨滴微物理参量略大于层状云降水;层状云降水和对流云...     

Analysis of the Microphysical Properties of a Stratiform Rain Event Using an L-Band Profiler Radar

This paper investigates spatial and temporal distributions of the microphysical properties of precipitating stratiform clouds based on Doppler spectra of rain particles observed by an L-band profiler radar.The retrieval of raindrop size distributions（RSDs） is accomplished through eliminating vertical air motion and isolating the terminal fall velocity of raindrops in the observed Doppler velocity spectrum.The microphysical properties of raindrops in a broad stratiform region with weak convective cells are studied using data collected from a 1320-MHz wind profiler radar in Huayin,Shaanxi Province on 14 May 2009.RSDs and gamma function parameters are retrieved at altitudes between 700 and 3000 m above the surface,below a melting layer.It is found that the altitude of the maximum number of raindrops was closely related to the surface rain rate.The maximum number of large drops was observed at lower altitudes earlier in the precipitation event but at higher altitudes in later periods,suggesting decreases in the numbers of large and medium size raindrops.These decreases may have been caused by the breakup of larger drops and evaporation of smaller drops as they fell.The number of medium size drops decreased with increasing altitude.The relationship between reflectivity and liquid water content during this precipitation event was Z = 1.69×10~4M~（1.5）,and the relationship between reflectivity and rain intensity was Z = 256I~（1.4）.     

黄山层状云和对流云降水不同高度的雨滴谱统计特征分析

根据2011年6~7月在黄山不同高度采用PARSIVEL雨滴谱仪测得的雨滴谱数据,对不同海拔高度上两类（层状云和对流云）降水粒子谱的微物理特征量、Gamma函数拟合以及雨滴的下落速度进行对比分析,结果表明:对流云降水的雨水含量和降水强度、雨滴的各类尺度参数和数浓度都比相同位置上层状云降水的大,同类降水中,山腰的雨滴尺度大于山顶和山底,这可能与各观测点和云底相对位置的不同有关;随降水强度增加,雨滴的质量加权平均直径D_m逐渐增大,广义截距参数（log₁₀N_w）的标准差逐渐减小。拟合结果表明各高度的雨滴谱都比较符合Gamma分布,由拟合参数分析雨滴谱的演变,发现相对于对流云降水,层状云降水粒子谱随高度的变化较小,雨滴谱的演变较为稳定。此外,本文还对两类降水中雨滴的下落速度及影响落速的因素进行了分析。     

庐山地区层状云和对流云降水特征对比分析

根据Parsivel激光雨滴谱仪在庐山高海拔观测场获取的2011年降水资料,结合宏观特征量、雨滴谱资料和雷达图像资料,将降水划分为对流云降水和层状云降水,选取了12次典型降水过程。对两类云降水的6种特征直径、各档雨滴对降水参量的贡献、降水微物理参量的演变等进行了分析,并利用M-P分布和Gamma分布对两类云降水雨滴谱进行拟合,对拟合参数以及拟合效果进行了分析。结果表明：两类云降水微物理特征有着本质的区别,层状云降水谱宽相对较窄,参量随时间变化比较平缓,直径不超过1 mm的小滴对降水贡献最大;对流云降水谱宽相对较宽,出现了直径接近10 mm的大滴,参量起伏较大,对数密度贡献很小的大滴对雨强、含水量贡献却比较大。从拟合效果检验来看,层状云降水拟合时的M-P曲线在大部分区段比Gamma曲线更接近实测雨滴谱曲线;对流云降水拟合时的Gamma分布曲线与实际雨滴谱分布曲线整体吻合程度较高。M-P分布和Gamma分布两种拟合方法都适用于层状云降水,对流云降水雨滴谱拟合时Gamma拟合效果优于M-P拟合效果。     

暖底对流云催化的微物理和动力效应的数值模拟

为加深理解暖云底对流云降水形成的微物理机制,调查对这类对流云实施碘化银催化所能产生的微物理和动力效应,本文使用三维对流云模式(包含6种水成物:云滴、雨滴、冰晶、雪花、霰和冰雹),对2004年7月8日发生在我国江淮地区的一例对流云进行模拟,并开展碘化银催化试验。结果表明:(1)模式能够较好地模拟出实测风暴的回波结构。(2)云雨自动转化和霰粒子融化是两个最重要的成雨机制,产生的雨滴占雨滴总数量(质量)的67%(19%)和18%(57%)。(3)对流发展初期在主上升气流区进行的催化试验表明,对本例对流云播撒碘化银能够同时获得增雨和减雹的正效果。(4)催化增加的霰粒子通过竞争机制抑制了前期冰雹的形成,但增强了向雨滴的转化(通过融化机制);催化也促进了二次对流的发展,增加了入云的水汽通量和云水含量,加强了后期的云雨自动转化及碰并增长,导致后期的雨和冰雹增加,并使地面降水分布发生变化。这些结果表明,对暖底对流云进行碘化银催化能够产生微物理和动力效应。     

伊宁春季层状云和混合云降水的雨滴谱统计特征分析

利用设在伊宁的激光雨滴谱仪获取的2013年4月的降水资料,对层状云和混合云降水粒子谱的微物理参量平均值和Gamma函数拟合结果以及Z-I关系进行对比分析。计算结果表明,伊宁地区春季降水的微物理参量普遍偏小,小滴对降水浓度的贡献达到92%以上,即降水主要以小滴为主。层状云降水的雨强、雨滴数浓度、雨滴的各类微物理特征参量的平均值均大于混合云降水。函数拟合结果表明,混合云降水的雨滴谱宽大于层状云降水的雨滴谱宽,层状云和混合云降水的雨滴谱都比较符合Gamma分布,在小滴段Gamma分布对实际谱都有一定的低估,在大于1 mm的粒径段,拟合结果有一定的偏差。还讨论了雨滴大小因子Λ和形状因子μ之间的关系以及Z-I关系,Λ-μ关系与粒子尺度有关,根据拟合的二项式得到层状云降水粒子的平均直径大于混合云降水的平均直径。     

1960年以来东亚季风区云-降水微物理的直接观测研究

云-降水的直接观测结果是云微物理参数化的重要依据。自1960年以来,处于东亚季风影响下的中国实施了大量对云-降水微物理参数的观测和研究,旨在加深对云-降水微物理过程的认识,从而改进数值模式中云微物理参数化方案和指导人工影响天气作业。云-降水微物理参数包括气溶胶、冰核、云滴、雨滴、冰晶、雪晶、冰雹等粒子浓度和谱分布,以及云滴、雨滴含水量等。中国已有云-降水微物理参数的成果可归纳为:(1)通常云-降水微物理粒子浓度变化较大,但总体变化有一定的范围;(2)采用Γ函数拟合云滴谱更接近实际谱,但不同拟合谱参数差异较大;(3)可用指数函数和Γ函数来拟合层状云降水雨滴谱,Γ函数拟合积云和层积混合云降水雨滴谱精度更高;(4)中国冰核浓度较高,冰核浓度随温度的降低近似成指数变化;(5)冰晶谱、雪晶谱、冰雹谱通常采用指数函数来描述;(6)通常使用荣格(Junge)和Γ函数来分段描述气溶胶粒子谱拟合误差更小。由于云-降水过程及其反馈作用描述不准确是数值模式预报结果不确定性的最大因素,中国正在不断地推进云降水的微物理观测研究,以期进一步加深对东亚季风区云-降水微物理特征的认识,从而为模式中微物理参数化方案的改进提供观测依据和科学指导。基于数值预报模式中云微物理过程参数化发展的需要,总结了中国1960年以来云-降水微物理直接观测的研究成果,可为东亚地区云-降水微物理研究及其模式参数化方案的改进提供观测依据。此外,针对云微物理参化发展的需求,结合过去已有的大量观测提出了几点建议,为今后云-降水物理综合性观测方案的设计提供参考。     

Vertical Structures of Convective and Stratiform Clouds in Boreal Summer over the Tibetan Plateau and Its Neighboring Regions

Cloud is essential in the atmosphere, condensing water vapor and generating strong convective or large-scale persistent precipitation. In this work, the relationships between cloud vertical macro- or microphysical properties, radiative heating rate, and precipitation for convective and stratiform clouds in boreal summer over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) are analyzed and compared with its neighboring land and tropical oceans based on CloudSat/CALIPSO satellite measurements and TRMM precipitation data. The precipitation intensity caused by convective clouds is twofold stronger than that by stratiform clouds. The vertical macrophysics of both cloud types show similar features over the TP, with the region weakening the precipitation intensity and compressing the cloud vertical expansion and variation in cloud top height, but having an uplift effect on the average cloud top height. The vertical microphysics of both cloud types under conditions of no rain over the TP are characterized by lower-level ice water, ice particles with a relatively larger range of sizes, and a relatively lower occurrence of denser ice particles. The features are similar to other regions when precipitation enhances, but convective clouds gather denser and larger ice particles than stratiform clouds over the TP. The atmospheric shortwave (longwave) heating (cooling) rate strengthens with increased precipitation for both cloud types. The longwave cooling layer is thicker when the rainfall rate is less than 100 mm d^?1, but the net heating layer is typically compressed for the profiles of both cloud types over the TP. This study provides insights into the associations between clouds and precipitation, and an observational basis for improving the simulation of convective and stratiform clouds over the TP in climate models.     

山东三类降水云雨滴谱分布特征的观测研究

利用激光雨滴谱仪2009年8月—2010年10月观测获取的滴谱资料,分析了山东省三类云降水雨滴微结构参量特征及滴谱随降水过程的演变特征。按照降水云系不同分别对各微物理参量进行比较,结果表明,各值由大到小排序依次均为积雨云、混合云和层状云。三类云降水过程中雨强与雨滴数浓度和最大直径间存在较好的相关关系;层状云和混合云降水以直径小于2 mm的雨滴为主,而积雨云降水以1~3 mm的雨滴对雨强贡献最大。层状云降水雨滴谱很窄,呈单峰或双峰型;积雨云降水雨滴谱宽,在大滴端呈多峰结构;混合云降水谱宽介于前两者之间。另外,统计得到该地区三类云降水的Z-I关系式,为雷达定量测量降水提供了一定的参考。     

A Modeling Study of Surface Rainfall Processes Associated with a Torrential Rainfall Event over Hubei, China, during July 2007

The surface rainfall processes associated with the torrential rainfall event over Hubei,China,during July 2007 were investigated using a two-dimensional cloud-resolving model.The model integrated the large-scale vertical velocity and zonal wind data from National Centers for Environmental Prediction(NCEP)/Global Data Assimilation System(GDAS) for 5 days.The time and model domain mean surface rain rate was used to identify the onset,mature,and decay periods of rainfall.During the onset period,the descending motion data imposed in the lower troposphere led to a large contribution of stratiform rainfall to the model domain mean surface rainfall.The local atmospheric drying and transport of rain from convective regions mainly contributes to the stratiform rainfall.During the mature periods,the ascending motion data integrated into the model was so strong that water vapor convergence was the dominant process for both convective and stratiform rainfall.Both convective and stratiform rainfalls made important contributions to the model domain mean surface rainfall.During the decay period,descending motion data input into the model prevailed,making stratiform rainfall dominant.Stratiform rainfall was mainly caused by the water vapor convergence over raining stratiform regions.     

中国东部暖季对流云与层状云的比例及与降水的对应关系

基于1985~2011年逐时地面台站观测云资料,分析了对流云和层状云及其比例关系的时空演变特征,结合逐日融合降水资料研究了对流云、层状云与季风雨带的对应关系。结果表明,中国东部暖季（5~9月）对流云发生频率平均为15.4%,层状云为30.0%。对流云与层状云发生频率的比例在广东、广西、海南省东部和贵州省大部分地区大于1,其它地区均小于1。伴随季风雨带的北进南退,层状云发生频率和云量中心均与降水中心对应,且层状云云带与季风雨带位置吻合,随时间的演变趋势也相同,说明季风雨带主要由层状降水构成,对流云发生频率和云量大值中心则位于季风雨带南侧。对流云和层状云发生频率/云量的变化在华南地区和江淮流域呈显著负相关,云的类型主要由大气稳定度决定。对流云和层状云发生频率在华北地区呈显著正相关,水汽是形成云的决定因素。就降水频率而言,华南地区层状云降水和对流云降水各占一定的比例,而江淮流域和华北地区层状云降水频率更大。