Satellite-based estimation of daily average net radiation under clear-sky conditions

ABSTRACT Daily average net radiation （DANR） is an important variable for estimating evapotranspiration from satellite data at regional scales, and is used for atmospheric and hydrologic modeling, as well as ecosystem management. A scheme is proposed to estimate the DANR over large heterogeneous areas under clear-sky conditions using only remotely sensed data. The method was designed to overcome the dependence of DANR estimates on ground data, and to map spatially consistent and reasonably distributed DANR, by using various land and atmospheric data products retrieved from MODIS （Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer） data. An improved sinusoidal model was used to retrieve the diurnal variations of downward shortwave radiation using a single instantaneous value from satellites. The downward shortwave component of DANR was directly obtained from this instantaneous value, and the upward shortwave component was estimated using satellite-derived albedo products. Four observations of air temperature from MOD07_L2 and MYD07_L2 data products were used to derive the downward longwave component of DANR, while the upward longwave component was estimated using the land surface temperature （LST） and the surface emissivity from MOD1 l_L2. Compared to in situ observations at the cropland and grassland sites located in Tongyu, northern China, the root mean square error （RMSE） of DANR estimated for both sites under clear-sky conditions was 37 W m-2 and 40 W m-2, respectively. The errors in estimation of DANR were comparable to those from previous satellite-based methods. Our estimates can be used for studying the surface radiation balance and evapotranspiration.     

On the vertical profile of surface radiative fluxes in southwest Germany

Summary Vertical profile of surface radiative fluxes in an area of heterogeneous terrain in south-west Germany is presented. Main data sets utilized for the study were recorded during the REgio KLIma Projekt (REKLIP). Supporting observational data were provided by the German weather service and German geophysical consultant service. Elevation of the study sites ranged from 212 m a.s.l. to 1489 m a.s.l. From May to September, monthly mean albedo was generally low at the study sites, ranging from 19% to 24%. For the other months, monthly mean albedo lie between 22% and 25% at the lowland site but extended between 27% and 71% at the highly elevated mountain site. Following the altitudinal increase in surface albedo, net radiative flux and radiation efficiency declined with elevation at an annual mean of 1.15 Wm⁻²/100 m and 0.008/100 m respectively. Absorbed shortwave radiation and effective terrestrial radiation showed mean decline of 1.54 Wm⁻²/100 m and 0.34 Wm⁻²/100 m, respectively, with the mean sky-to-earth radiation deficit amounting to about 52 Wm⁻² for the lowland site and 73 Wm⁻² for the highest elevated site. Some empirical models which express shortwave and longwave radiative fluxes in terms of meteorological variables have been validated for the lowland and mountain sites. Monthly mean daily total estimates of solar radiation obtained from ?ngst?m-Prescott relation were quite consistent with observed values. Parameterisation of downward atmospheric radiation under all sky condition was achieved by extending Brutsaert clear sky atmospheric model. Relationship between outgoing longwave radiation and screen temperature at the study sites was best described by an exponential function unlike the linear relationship proposed by Monteith and Unsworth. Net radiative flux for the lowland and mountain sites has been expressed in terms of absorbed shortwave radiation, cloud amount and screen temperature. Received March 5, 2001 Revised October 29, 2001     

Estimates of surface soil water content using linear combinations of spectral wavebands

Summary Surface reflectance factors from bare field soil were measured to determine the relationship between surface soil water content and spectral reflectance. Reflectance in the six reflective Thematic Mapper (TM) bands plus a 1.15 to 1.30 µm bandpass (referred to as MMR 5) was measured using a groundbased radiometer across a soil water gradient provided by a line source sprinkler system. A spectral index of soil brightness (Brightness) derived using the Gram-Schmidt process and utilizing reflectance information was calculated for each band and for combinations of bands. The results of this study show that TM band 7 (2.05–2.30 µm) provided improved estimates of surface soil water content (0–0.5 cm depth) over estimates using reflectance information from all seven bands. Good correlations were also found between band ratio spectral indices of TM 5 (1.55–1.75 µm) / TM 7, MMR 5/TM 7, and MMR 5/TM 5 and surface soil water content. Results indicate that surface reflectance factors within bandpasses that partially overlap water absorption regions, such as TM 7, are most highly correlated with surface soil moisture. Band ratios utilizing a bandpass partially overlapping a water absorption region such as TM 7 and a non-water-absorbing bandpass such as MMR 5 yield close correlations with surface soil water content.Contribution from the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, Tucson, AZ 85721. Journal Paper No. 7040.With 6 Figures     

The Arctic surface energy budget as simulated with the IPCC AR4 AOGCMs

Ensembles of simulations of the twentieth- and twentyfirst-century climate, performed with 20 coupled models for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment, provide the basis for an evaluation of the Arctic (70°–90°N) surface energy budget. While the various observational sources used for validation contain differences among themselves, some model biases and across-model differences emerge. For all energy budget components in the twentieth-century simulations (the 20C3M simulation), the across-model variance and the differences from observational estimates are largest in the marginal ice zone (Barents, Kara, Chukchi Seas). Both downward and upward longwave radiation at the surface are underestimated in winter by many models, and the ensenmble mean annual net surface energy loss by longwave radiation is 35 W/m², which is less than for the NCEP and ERA40 reanalyses but in line with some of the satellite estimates. Incoming solar radiation is overestimated by the models in spring and underestimated in summer and autumn. The ensemble mean annual net surface energy gain by shortwave radiation is 39 W/m², which is slightly less than for the observational based estimates, In the twentyfirst-century simulations driven by the SRES A2 scenario, increased concentrations of greenhouse gasses increase (average for 2080–2100 minus average for 1980–2000 averages) the annual average ensemble mean downward longwave radiation by 30.1 W/m². This was partly counteracted by a 10.7 W/m² reduction in downward shortwave radiation. Enhanced sea ice melt and increased surface temperatures increase the annual surface upward longwave radiation by 27.1 W/m² and reduce the upward shortwave radiation by 13.2 W/m², giving an annual net (shortwave plus longwave) surface radiation increase of 5.8 W/m² , with the maximum changes in summer. The increase in net surface radiation is largely offset by an increased energy loss of 4.4 W/m² by the turbulent fluxes.     

A Multi-layer Radiation Model for Urban Neighbourhoods with Trees

A neighbourhood-scale multi-layer urban canopy model of shortwave and longwave radiation exchange that explicitly includes the radiative effects of tall vegetation (trees) is presented. Tree foliage is permitted both between and above buildings, and mutual shading, emission and reflection between buildings and trees are included. The basic geometry is a two-dimensional canyon with leaf area density profiles and probabilistic variation of building height. Furthermore, the model accounts for three-dimensional path lengths through the foliage. Ray tracing determines the receipt of direct shortwave irradiance by building and foliage elements. View factors for longwave and shortwave diffuse radiation exchange are computed once at the start of the simulation using a Monte Carlo ray tracing approach; for subsequent model timesteps, matrix inversion rapidly solves infinite reflections and interception of emitted longwave between all elements. The model is designed to simulate any combination of shortwave and longwave radiation frequency bands, and to be portable to any neighbourhood-scale urban canopy geometry based on the urban canyon. Additionally, the model is sufficiently flexible to represent forest and forest-clearing scenarios. Model sensitivity tests demonstrate the model is robust and computationally feasible, and highlight the importance of vertical resolution to the performance of urban canopy radiation models. Full model evaluation is limited by the paucity of within-canyon radiation measurements in urban neighbourhoods with trees. Where appropriate model components are tested against analytic relations and results from an independent urban radiation transfer model. Furthermore, system response tests demonstrate the ability of the model to realistically distribute shortwave radiation among urban elements as a function of built form, solar angle and tree foliage height, density and clumping. Separate modelling of photosynthetically-active and near-infrared shortwave bands is shown to be important in some cases. Increased canyon height-to-width ratio and/or tree cover diminishes the net longwave radiation loss of individual canyon elements (e.g., floor, walls), but, notably, has little effect on the net longwave loss of the whole urban canopy. When combined with parametrizations for the impacts of trees on airflow and hydrological processes in the urban surface layer, the new radiation model extends the applicability of urban canopy models and permits more robust assessment of trees as tools to manage urban climate, air quality, human comfort and building energy loads.     

RegCM4对中国东部区域气候模拟的辐射收支分析

利用卫星和再分析数据,评估了区域气候模式Reg CM4对中国东部地区辐射收支的基本模拟能力,重点关注地表净短波(SNS)、地表净长波(SNL)、大气顶净短波(TNS)、大气顶净长波(TNL)4个辐射分量。结果表明:1)短波辐射的误差值在夏季较大,而长波辐射的误差值在冬季较大。但各辐射分量模拟误差的空间分布在冬、夏季都有较好的一致性。2)对于地表辐射通量,SNS表现为正偏差(向下净短波偏多),在各分量中误差最大,区域平均误差值近50 W/m2;SNL表现为负偏差(向上净长波偏多);对于大气顶辐射通量,TNS和TNL分别表现为"北负南正"的误差分布和整体正偏差。3)利用空间相关和散点线性回归方法对4个辐射分量的模拟误差进行归因分析,发现在云量、地表反照率、地表温度三个直接影响因子中,云量模拟误差的贡献最大,中国东部地区云量模拟显著偏少。     

The impact of surface properties on downward surface shortwave radiation over the Tibetan Plateau

The complexity of inhomogeneous surface–atmosphere radiation transfer is one of the foremost problems in the field of atmospheric physics and atmospheric radiation. To date, the influence of surface properties on shortwave radiation has not been well studied. The daily downward surface shortwave radiation of the latest FLASHFlux/CERES(Fast Longwave And Shortwave Fluxes Time Interpolated and Spatially Averaged/Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System) satellite data was evaluated against in situ data. The comparison indicated that the differences between the two data sets are unstable and large over rugged terrain compared with relatively flat terrain, and the mean absolute error of the satellite products reaches 31.4 W m-2(12.3%) over rugged terrain. Based on the SSF(single satellite footprint)/CERES product, the influence of surface properties on the distribution of downward surface shortwave radiation(DSSR) was analyzed. The influence of surface properties on DSSR over the Tibetan Plateau is about twice as large as that in two other regions located at the same latitude(eastern China–western Pacific and subtropical North Pacific). A simulation was carried out with the help of the I3RC(International Intercomparision of Three-Dimensional Radiation Code) Monte Carlo 3D radiative transfer community model. The results showed that DSSR increases as surface albedo increases. Moreover, the impact of surface albedo on DSSR is larger if the spatial distribution of clouds is more non-uniform. It is hoped that these results will contribute to the development of 3D radiative transfer models and the improvement of satellite inversion algorithms.     

The disposition of radiative energy in the global climate system: GCM-calculated versus observational estimates

 A comprehensive dataset of direct observations is used to assess the representation of surface and atmospheric radiation budgets in general circulation models (GCMs). Based on combined measurements of surface and collocated top-of-the-atmosphere fluxes at more than 700 sites, a lack of absorption of solar radiation within the atmosphere is identified in the ECHAM3 GCM, indicating that the shortwave atmospheric absorption calculated in the current generation of GCMs, typically between 60 and 70 Wm^-2, is too low by 10–20 Wm^-2. The surface and atmospheric radiation budgets of a new version of the Max-Planck Institute GCM, the ECHAM4, differ considerably from other GCMs in both short- and longwave ranges. The amount of solar radiation absorbed in the atmosphere (90 Wm^-2) is substantially larger than typically found in current GCMs, resulting in a lower absorption at the surface (147 Wm^-2). It is shown that this revised disposition of solar energy within the climate system generally reduces the biases compared to the observational estimates of surface and atmospheric absorption. The enhanced shortwave absorption in the ECHAM4 atmosphere is due to an increase in both simulated clear-sky and cloud absorption compared to ECHAM3. The increased absorption in the cloud-free atmosphere is related to an enhanced absorption of water vapor, and is supported in stand-alone comparisons of the radiation scheme with synchronous observations. The increased cloud absorption, on the other hand, is shown to be predominantly spurious due to the coarse spectral resolution of the ECHAM4 radiation code, thus providing no physical explanation for the “anomalous cloud absorption” phenomenon. Quantitatively, however, an additional increase of atmospheric absorption due to clouds as in ECHAM4 is, at least at low latitudes, not in conflict with the observational estimates, though this does not rule out the possibility that other effects, such as highly absorbing aerosols, could equally contribute to close the gap between models and observations. At higher latitudes, however, the increased cloud absorption is not supported by the observational dataset. Overall, this study points out that not only the clouds, but also the cloud-free atmosphere might be responsible for the discrepancies between observational and simulated estimates of shortwave atmospheric absorption. The smaller absorption of solar radiation at the surface in ECHAM4 is compensated by an increased downward longwave flux (344 Wm^-2), which is larger than in other GCMs. The enhanced downward longwave flux is supported by surface measurements and by a stand-alone validation of the radiation scheme for clear-sky conditions. The enhanced flux also ensures that a sufficient amount of energy is available at the surface to maintain a realistic intensity of the global hydrological cycle. In contrast, a one-handed revision of only the shortwave radiation budget to account for the increased shortwave absorption in GCM atmospheres may induce a global hydrological cycle that is too weak. Received: 26 February 1998 / Accepted: 18 May 1998     

我国西北大气沙尘气溶胶的辐射效应

利用HEIFE地面辐射平衡观测资料和同期NOAA-11/AVHRR卫星遥感资料定量估算春季我国西北大气沙尘的辐射效应。大气沙尘减小地面净辐射冷却地面,对地-气系统和大气的辐射效应均与地表反照率有关,严重浑浊的沙尘大气在沙漠为短波加热和长波冷却,在绿洲则相反,但净效应都是加热。文中给出了4月大气浑浊度系数约由0.1增大到0.6,在沙漠和绿洲上空沙尘层（850～600 hPa）内大气的附加短波、长波和净加热/冷却率。     

The Energy Balance Experiment EBEX-2000. Part III: Behaviour and quality of the radiation measurements

An important part of the Energy Balance Experiment (EBEX-2000) was the measurement of the net radiation and its components. Since the terrain, an irrigated cotton field, could not be considered homogeneous, radiation measurements were made at nine sites using a variety of radiation instruments, including pyranometers, pyrgeometers and net radiometers. At several of these sites multiple instruments were employed, which enabled us to compare instruments and assess accuracies. At all sites the outgoing longwave and shortwave radiation and the net radiation were measured, while the incoming radiation was supposed to be uniformly distributed over the field and was therefore measured at three sites only. Net radiation was calculated for all sites from the sum of its four components, and compared with the direct measurement of net radiometers. The main conclusions were: (a) the outgoing shortwave radiation showed differences of up to 30 W m⁻² over the field; the differences were not clearly related to the irrigation events; (b) the outgoing longwave radiation showed differences of up to 50 W m⁻²; the differences increased during the periods of irrigation; (c) the net radiation showed differences of several tens of W m⁻² across the field, rising to 50 W m⁻² or more during the periods of irrigation; (d) the net radiation is preferably to be inferred from its four components, rather than measured directly, and (e) attention should be paid to the characteristics of pyranometers that measure the outgoing radiation, and thus are mounted upside down, while they are commonly calibrated in the upward position. The error in the net radiation at EBEX-2000 is estimated at max (25 W m⁻², 5%) per site during the day and 10 W m⁻² at night. The National Center for Atmospheric Research is supported by the National Science Foundation.     

宁夏南部地表辐射和热量平衡的遥感研究

为了研究和揭示宁夏南部地气能量传输过程及特点并进一步评估退耕还林还草的生态效应, 利用Landsat-7 ETM+卫星遥感资料所求取的地表特征参数, 将地表分成水体、裸地、半裸地、草地、林地5类地表覆盖类型, 结合常规气象观测资料, 分别计算得出宁夏南部地表辐射和热量平衡各量的区域分布, 并给出各量的分布图和直方图, 分类别讨论了地表辐射和热量平衡各量分布特征, 使得对宁夏南部区域地表辐射和热量平衡区域分布有一个直观、综合的了解和认识。研究表明, 植被分布对地表辐射和热量平衡各量影响很大。     

The role of wintertime radiation in maintaining and destroying stable layers

Summary Strong stable layers are a common occurrence during western Colorado's winter. Analysis of radiosonde observations indicate wintertime boundary layer heights are near 500 m. The terrain in this region consists of mountains that rise approximately 1500–2000 m above the ground to the east, providing an effective blocking barrier. An experiment is described to observe upwelling and downwelling, longwave and shortwave radiative fluxes at two sites in western Colorado during January and February 1992, for combinations of clear, cloudy, snow covered, and bare ground periods. Analysis of the observations and the surface energy budget for typical Bowen ratios provides a better understanding of the role of radiation in maintaining and destroying stable layers.During the day, the surface received a net gain of energy from radiation, while at night there was a net loss. Over snow, the 24-hour net radiative flux was small and either positive or negative. Over bare soil, the 24-hour net radiative flux was positive but still small. There is little difference in the net radiative flux between clear and cloudy days; the reduction of the incident solar flux by clouds is nearly compensated by the hindering of the longwave cooling. The cumulative effects of the 24-hour net radiative flux were negative over snow early in the experiment. The 24-hour values shifted to near zero as the snow albedo decreased and were positive for bare ground.If the daytime net radiative flux is partitioned into sensible and latent heat flux using typical Bowen ratios, the daytime sensible heat available for destroying boundary layers is small for the low solar angles of the winter season. With a Bowen ratio of 0.5, the daytime sensible heat flux available is only 0.3 to 1.2 MJ m^–2 over a snow surface and 1.4 to 2.3 MJ m^–2 over soil. These heat fluxes will not build a deep enough boundary layer to break a typical wintertime inversion. The 24-hour sensible heat flux was negative at both sites for the entire experiment with this Bowen ratio.The radiation observations and the use of typical Bowen ratios lead to the conclusion that the net radiation will sustain or strengthen a stable atmosphere in the winter season in western Colorado. Analysis of the radiosonde observations confirm this result as the boundary layer depths were less than 500 m early in the experiment and grew to only 700 m later in the experiment.With 12 Figures     

2011年2月—2012年1月东南极高原辐射平衡观测研究

利用东南极高原熊猫-1自动气象站2011年2月—2012年1月观测的辐射资料和相关资料,对辐射分量和辐射平衡的季节变化进行了研究。结果表明,夏季是东南极高原获得太阳能的主要时段,总辐射通量夏季平均为365.0 W/m²,总量达到2752.1 MJ/m²,占全年总辐射量的58%。各个季节均能出现总辐射瞬时值大于大气顶水平总辐射,春季发生频率最高,冬季最小,总辐射平均日变化呈单峰型。大气长波辐射除夏季外,日变化不明显。冰雪面长波辐射除冬季外,各季节平均日变化呈明显的单峰单谷型。净辐射12月和1月为很小的正值,其他月份为负值。年平均净辐射为 -8.7 W/m²,表明地表相对于大气为冷源。该站的辐射平衡特征与其他南极内陆高原站相似,雪面具有强烈的辐射冷却效应,导致净辐射绝对值都小于下降风区。     

Impact of the convection-wind-evaporation feedback on surface climate simulation in general circulation models

The wind-evaporation-convection feedback in the tropics is demonstrated to strongly affect the mean state of surface climate in atmospheric general circulation models. The feedback is shown to be very effective in channeling perturbations from one component of the climate system to other components, e.g., from evaporation to surface wind and from atmospheric convective activity to evaporation. It also provides an effective channel to pass on atmospheric perturbations in the middle and upper troposphere to the surface. As an illustration, it is shown that surface evaporation over tropical oceans is connected with cloud absorption of shortwave radiation through this feedback. Insufficient shortwave cloud absorption, causing excessive shortwave radiation at the surface as is common in most of the climate models, leads to excessive evaporation. Quantitatively, sensitivity of evaporation to short-wave cloud absorption, when averaged over the whole tropics, can be described by an approximate balance of variations in atmospheric radiative cooling and latent heating. This balance is achieved by the impact of radiation on convection, and then on the surface wind and evaporation. This mechanism calls for the need to include atmospheric processes far beyond the surface for improvements of the quality of surface climate simulation.     

Radiative energy partition and cloud radiative forcing at a Po valley site

Values of downward and upward flux densities of solar and terrestrial radiation were continuously recorded between 1 December 2001 and 30 November 2002 using a four-components radiometer at S. Pietro Capofiume (SPC) in northern Italy (44°39′N, 11°37′E, alt. 11 m a.m.s.l.), which is characterized by a weakly-reflective surface. The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of clouds on surface radiation balance (SRB); the cloud fraction (N) has been retrieved through the inverted form of the parameterization proposed by Kasten and Czeplak [Solar Energy 24 (1980) 177] and cloud types estimated following the methodology of Duchon and O'Malley [J. Appl. Meteorol. 38 (1999) 132]. The cloud radiative forcing (CRF) was evaluated through the Bintanja and Van den Broeke [Int. J. Climatol. 16 (1996) 1281] formula and then associated with cloud type. Experimental results showed that during the measuring period the net shortwave (Sw) balance always decreased with increasing N, whereas the net longwave (Lw) balance increased in all seasons. The net radiation available at the surface decreased with increasing N in all seasons except in winter, where no significant dependency was detected.The analysis of the cloud radiative forcing indicates that all seasons were characterized by a net cooling of the surface except winter, where clouds seem to have no effects on the surface warming or cooling. Taking into account the dependence on solar radiation cycle, an intercomparison between the retrieved cloud types seems to indicate that the effect of stratus was a slight cooling whereas that of cumulus clouds was a stronger cooling of the surface. On the contrary, cirrus clouds seem to have slight warming effect on the surface.The annual trends of mean monthly values of shortwave and longwave radiation balances confirmed that the measurement site is characterized by a temperate climate. Moreover, in spite of the cooling effect of clouds, a monthly radiative energy surplus is available all year long for surface–atmosphere energy exchanges. The analysis is also instrumental for the detection of SRB variations.     

Effects of complex terrain on net surface longwave radiation in China

Net surface longwave radiation (NSLR) is one of key meteorological factors and is strongly influenced by cloud cover, surface temperature, humidity, and local micrometeorological conditions as well as terrain conditions. Realistically estimating NSLR is vitally important for understanding surface radiation balance and investigating micrometeorological factors of air pollution dispersion, especially in regions with complicated terrain. In this study, we proposed a distributed model for estimating NSLR by considering effects of complex local terrain conditions in China. Meteorological data (including mean temperature, relative humidity, and sunshine percentage) and observed NSLR data from 1993 to 2001 together with the digital elevation model data were used to parametrize the model and account for the effects of atmospheric factors and surface terrain factors according to the isotropic principle. The monthly NSLR during 1961–2000 was estimated at a spatial resolution of 1 km. Topographic analysis suggests that the distribution characteristics of NSLR with elevation or slope are consistent with those of field observations. In particular, the estimated NSLR is favorably comparable with site-level observations on the Tibetan Plateau (average relative error < 11%). Our results indicate that this model can describe microscale distribution features in mountainous areas in detail and that this improved approach can be used for NSLR spatial estimation in other regions with complicated terrain.     

Sensitivity of the Earth’s radiation budget to interannual variations in cloud amount

 Using two pairs of coincident long-term satellite derived cloud and earth radiation budget data sets (Nimbus-7 ERB/Nimbus-7 Cloud Climatology and ERBE Scanner/ISCCP-C2), estimates are made of the sensitivity of the top of the atmosphere radiation budget to interannual variations in the total cloud amount. Both sets of analyses indicate that the largest net warming due to interannual cloud cover changes occurs over desert regions, while the largest net cooling occurs in areas of persistent marine stratiform cloud. There is generally a large amount of cancellation between the large shortwave cooling and longwave warming effects in tropical convection regions. However, the Nimbus-7 analysis identifies an area of net warming in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean which is shown to be associated with the 1982–83 ENSO event. In the zonal mean the Nimbus-7 data sets indicate that interannual cloud cover changes lead to a net warming at low latitudes and net cooling polewards of 25° in both hemispheres. In contrast, the analysis of the ERBE and ISCCP data sets indicates net cooling everywhere except for the Northern Hemisphere equatorwards of 20 °N. For the spatial average between 60 °N and 60 °S the ratio of the shortwave and longwave effects is 0.94 in the Nimbus-7 analysis (i.e. clouds cause a small net warming) and 1.21 in the ERBE-ISCCP analysis (i.e. a net cooling). Given their improved spatial and temporal sampling the analysis using the ERBE and ISCCP data sets should be the more reliable. However, the large differences between the two analyses still raises some issues concerning the confidence with which the sign of the effect of clouds on the radiation budget at these time scales is currently known. Received: 24 October 1995 / Accepted: 8 August 1996     

CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ATMOSPHERIC NET RADIATION OVER CHINA

In terms of ERBE and ISCCP data.and measured/calculated surface net radiation,computation is performed of the climatic characteristics of ANR(atmospheric net radiation)acrossChina alongside with the discussion and relations to other two kinds of radiation and contributingfactors.Evidence suggests a high linear correlation of ANR with atmosphere-absorbed shortwaveradiation.whereby can be established a general expression for ANR,which decreases more sharplyas a function of altitude and increases slightly with latitude in summer,and changes uniformly inwinter.Eventually,a comparison is made of the findings presented in this paper and literaturesregarding the ANR pattern and magnitudes,indicating their great difference.     

A hybrid technique for computing the monthly mean net longwave surface radiation over oceanic areas

Summary Global maps of the monthly mean net upward longwave radiation flux at the ocean surface have been obtained for April, July, October 1985 and January 1986. These maps were produced by blending information obtained from a combination of general circulation model cloud radiative forcing fields, the top-of-the-atmosphere cloud radiative forcing from ERBE and TOVS profiles and sea surface temperature on ISCCP C1 tapes. The fields are compatible with known meteorological regimes of atmospheric water vapor content and cloudiness. There is a vast area of high net upward longwave radiation flux (> 80 W m^–2) in the eastern Pacific Ocean throughout most of the year. Areas of low net upward longwave radiation flux (< 40 Wm^–2) are the tropical convective regions and extra tropical regions that tend to have persistent low cloud cover. The technique used in this study relies on GCM simulations and so is subject to some of the uncertainties associated with the model. However, all input information regarding temperature, moisture and cloud cover is from satellite data having near global coverage. This feature of the procedure alone warrants its consideration for further use in compiling global maps of the net longwave radiation at the surface over the oceans.With 9 Figures     

Interpretation of Mauna Loa atmospheric transmission relative to aerosols,using photometric precipitable water amouts

Precipitable water measurements made coincident in time and space with direct broadband solar irradiance measurements are used in conjunction with an atmospheric transmission model to derive a parameter whose major dependence is on total aerosol extinction. Irradiance measurements are used to calculate an atmospheric transmission factor (ATF) that is independent of the instrument calibration and the extraterrestrial solar constant. The dependency of the ATF on precipitable water is determined using LOWTRAN5, an atmospheric transmission model with high spectral resolution. Precipitable water measurements are then used to adjust the measured ATF to correspond to an ATF value obtained for a constant precipitable water amount. The remaining variability in the adjusted ATF is due mostly to aerosol extinction. The technique is applied to a 6-year period (1978–1983) for clear-sky mornings at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (MLO). MLO ATF aerosol residuals are compared with independently measured monochromatic aerosol optical depth. Results show that the ATF aerosol residual is nearly equal to the 500 nm aerosol optical depth prior to the eruption of E1 Chichon, at which time a nonlinear time-dependent relationship between the two quantities is evident. ATF aerosol residuals reflect the spectrally integrated aerosol influence on transmission and, therefore, could indicate better than monochromatic optical depth the radiation balance perturbations due to aerosols. The 6-year precipitable water record for MLO, determined from a dual-channel sunphotometer, has a mean value of 0.3 cm. An annual cycle in precipitable water is evident, as is a 4-month 5-standard-deviation drought from December 1982 through March 1983.