A Model to Calculate what a Remote Sensor ‘Sees’ of an Urban Surface

Whilst the measurement of radiation emissions from a surface is relatively straightforward, correct interpretation and proper utilization of the information requires that the surface area seen be known accurately. This becomes non-trivial when the target is an urban surface, due to its complex three-dimensional form and the different thermal, radiative and moisture properties of its myriad surface facets. The geometric structure creates shade patterns in combination with the solar beam and obscures portions of the surface from the sensor, depending on where it is pointing and its field-of-view (FOV). A model to calculate these surface-sensor-sun relations (SUM) is described. SUM is tested against field and scale model observations, and theoretical calculations, and found to perform well. It can predict the surface area seen by a sensor of known FOV pointing in any direction when placed at any point in space above a specified urban surface structure. Moreover, SUM can predict the view factors of the roof, wall and ground facets seen and whether they are sunlit or shaded at any location and time of day. SUM can be used to determine the optimal placement and orientation of remote sensors to study urban radiation emissions; if the facet temperatures are known or modelled it can calculate the average temperature of the system, and it can determine the directional variation of temperature (anisotropy) due to any particular surface-sensor-sun geometric combination. The present surface geometry used in SUM is relatively simple, but there is scope to make it increasingly realistic.     

Radiative Exchange in an Urban Street Canyon

The influence of building geometry on the radiation terms ofthe surface energy balance is a principal reason for surfacetemperature differences between rural and urban areas.Methods exist to calculate the radiation balance in an urban area,but their validity across the range of urban geometries andmaterials has not been carefully considered.Here the exchange of diffuse radiation in an urban street canyon isinvestigated using a method incorporating all reflections of radiation.This exact solution is compared to two commonly used approximationsthat retain either no reflections, or just one reflection of radiation.The area-averaged net radiative flux density from the facets of the canyondecreases in magnitude monotonically as the canyon aspect ratio increases.The two approximate solutions possess unphysical differences from thismonotonic decrease for high canyon aspect ratios or low materialemissivities/high material albedos.The errors of the two approximate solutions are small for near blackbodymaterials and small canyon aspect ratios but can be an order ofmagnitude for intermediate material properties and deep street canyons.Urban street canyon models need to consider at least one reflectionof radiation and multiple reflections are desirable for full applicability.     

A microscale three-dimensional urban energy balance model for studying surface temperatures

A microscale three-dimensional (3-D) urban energy balance model, Temperatures of Urban Facets in 3-D (TUF-3D), is developed to predict urban surface temperatures for a variety of surface geometries and properties, weather conditions, and solar angles. The surface is composed of plane-parallel facets: roofs, walls, and streets, which are further sub-divided into identical square patches, resulting in a 3-D raster-type model geometry. The model code is structured into radiation, conduction and convection sub-models. The radiation sub-model uses the radiosity approach and accounts for multiple reflections and shading of direct solar radiation. Conduction is solved by finite differencing of the heat conduction equation, and convection is modelled by empirically relating patch heat transfer coefficients to the momentum forcing and the building morphology. The radiation and conduction sub-models are tested individually against measurements, and the complete model is tested against full-scale urban surface temperature and energy balance observations. Modelled surface temperatures perform well at both the facet-average and the sub-facet scales given the precision of the observations and the uncertainties in the model inputs. The model has several potential applications, such as the calculation of radiative loads, and the investigation of effective thermal anisotropy (when combined with a sensor-view model).     

Multi-Source Emission Determination Using an Inverse-Dispersion Technique

Inverse-dispersion calculations can be used to infer atmospheric emission rates through a combination of downwind gas concentrations and dispersion model predictions. With multiple concentration sensors downwind of a compound source (whose component positions are known) it is possible to calculate the component emissions. With this in mind, a field experiment was conducted to examine the feasibility of such multi-source inferences, using four synthetic area sources and eight concentration sensors arranged in different configurations. Multi-source problems tend to be mathematically ill-conditioned, as expressed by the condition number κ. In our most successful configuration (average κ = 4.2) the total emissions from all sources were deduced to within 10% on average, while component emissions were deduced to within 50%. In our least successful configuration (average κ = 91) the total emissions were calculated to within only 50%, and component calculations were highly inaccurate. Our study indicates that the most accurate multi-source inferences will occur if each sensor is influenced by only a single source. A “progressive” layout is the next best: one sensor is positioned to “see” only one source, the next sensor is placed to see the first source and another, a third sensor is placed to see the previous two plus a third, and so on. When it is not possible to isolate any sources κ is large and the accuracy of a multi-source inference is doubtful.     

THEORETICAL CALCULATION MODEL OF SHORTWAVE RADIATION FOR THE EARTH-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM AND ITS TESTING RESULTS

On the basis of radiation transfer theory,adopting improved two-stream algorithm incorporated with addingalgorithm,we build up a theoretical calculation model of shortwave radiation for the earth-atmosphere system whichcan be applied with satellite data.The model can calculate direct solar radiation,scattering solar radiation,heating rateand other physical quantities of radiation field at every layer of the atmosphere and on the earth's surface,if the under-ground reflectance or the planetary albedo obtained from satellite can be known.The model can be used in clear orcloudy atmosphere,and its calculating speed is fairly fast.We think that the model can be incorporated into large-scaleand mesoscale climatic models for the consideration of radiation calculation,and also it is useful for the utilization of so-lar energy.     

上海城市精细化地表温度分布模拟

本文引入了一种模拟城市复杂下垫面地表温度的方法,该方法基于地表辐射参数化方案（NARP）计算城市净辐射通量,然后利用客观滞后模型OHM计算地表储热通量,再利用强迫恢复法计算表面温度。通过上海地区高分辨率卫星资料获取不同地表类型覆盖比例,以每个格点中各地表覆盖类型所占面积比例为权重计算格点的平均地表温度,并对2013年8月12日上海地区地表温度进行模拟。结果表明：上海城市下垫面与其他类型下垫面相比,地表温度白天升高较快,而夜间下降较慢。模拟结果与MODIS陆面温度及地面观测资料进行比较,模拟的上海地表温度分布结构更精细,与气象站观测值较接近。     

Development of a Three-Dimensional Urban Energy Model for Predicting and Understanding Surface Temperature Distribution

The Model for Urban Surface Temperature, a three-dimensional approach, is developed for a realistically complex city with considerations of the energy exchange processes at the urban surface. The discrete transfer method and Gebhart absorption factor method are used for the shape factor estimation and multiple reflection calculation, respectively. The surface energy balance model is evaluated against existing field measurements that pertain to idealized urban geometry. It performs well in terms of predicting surface temperature and heat fluxes by allowing for detailed urban surface properties and meteorological conditions. The compressed row storage scheme is applied to calculate the transfer of surface thermal radiation, which dramatically reduces the computational requirements. This strategy permits the rigorous consideration of multiple reflections in a realistic urban area with hundreds of buildings. The result illustrates that considering only the first reflection is a good approach when the urban area is comprised of typical urban materials, e.g. materials with high emissivity and low albedo, because relatively accurate computational results can be obtained rapidly by avoiding the multiple reflection calculation.     

城市气溶胶对太阳辐射的影响及其在边界层温度变化中的反映

本文利用冬季观测的兰州市区、邻近山顶以及郊区皋兰县的辐射资料和温度廓线资料,分析了兰州城市气溶胶对太阳辐射影响;并用二流近似累加法计算了低层大气吸收太阳辐射的加热率,其结果与低层大气上部的实际增温在数值上比较接近。分析了城市气溶胶短波辐射效应对边界层温度廓线分布的影响。表明城市烟雾层削弱了地面热通量但增加了低层大气中上部的增温,从而增加了城市低层大气的稳定度。     

Scalar Fluxes from Urban Street Canyons Part II: Model

A practical model is developed for the vertical flux of a scalar, such as heat, from an urban street canyon that accounts for variations of the flow and turbulence with canyon geometry. The model gives the magnitude and geometric dependence of the flux from each facet of the urban street canyon, and is shown to agree well with wind-tunnel measurements described in Part I. The geometric dependence of the flux from an urban street canyon is shown to be determined by two physical processes. Firstly, as the height-to-width ratio of the street canyon increases, so does the roughness length and displacement height of the surface. This increase leads to a reduction in the wind speed in the inertial sublayer above the street canyons. Since the speed of the circulations in the street are proportional to this inertial sublayer wind speed, the flux then reduces with the inertial sublayer wind speed. This process is dominant at low height-to-width ratios. Secondly, the character of the circulations within the street canyon also varies as the height-to-width ratio increases. The flow in the street is partitioned into a recirculation region and a ventilated region. When the street canyon has high height-to-width ratios the recirculation region occupies the whole street canyon and the wind speeds within the street are low. This tendency decreases the flux at high height-to-width ratios. These processes tend to reduce the flux density from the individual facets of the street canyon, when compared to the flux density from a horizontal surface of the same material. But the street canyon has an increased total surface area, which means that the total flux from the street canyon is larger than from a horizontal surface. The variations in scalar flux from an urban street canyon with geometry is over a factor of two, which means that the physical mechanisms responsible should be incorporated into energy balance models for urban areas.     

A Multi-layer Radiation Model for Urban Neighbourhoods with Trees

A neighbourhood-scale multi-layer urban canopy model of shortwave and longwave radiation exchange that explicitly includes the radiative effects of tall vegetation (trees) is presented. Tree foliage is permitted both between and above buildings, and mutual shading, emission and reflection between buildings and trees are included. The basic geometry is a two-dimensional canyon with leaf area density profiles and probabilistic variation of building height. Furthermore, the model accounts for three-dimensional path lengths through the foliage. Ray tracing determines the receipt of direct shortwave irradiance by building and foliage elements. View factors for longwave and shortwave diffuse radiation exchange are computed once at the start of the simulation using a Monte Carlo ray tracing approach; for subsequent model timesteps, matrix inversion rapidly solves infinite reflections and interception of emitted longwave between all elements. The model is designed to simulate any combination of shortwave and longwave radiation frequency bands, and to be portable to any neighbourhood-scale urban canopy geometry based on the urban canyon. Additionally, the model is sufficiently flexible to represent forest and forest-clearing scenarios. Model sensitivity tests demonstrate the model is robust and computationally feasible, and highlight the importance of vertical resolution to the performance of urban canopy radiation models. Full model evaluation is limited by the paucity of within-canyon radiation measurements in urban neighbourhoods with trees. Where appropriate model components are tested against analytic relations and results from an independent urban radiation transfer model. Furthermore, system response tests demonstrate the ability of the model to realistically distribute shortwave radiation among urban elements as a function of built form, solar angle and tree foliage height, density and clumping. Separate modelling of photosynthetically-active and near-infrared shortwave bands is shown to be important in some cases. Increased canyon height-to-width ratio and/or tree cover diminishes the net longwave radiation loss of individual canyon elements (e.g., floor, walls), but, notably, has little effect on the net longwave loss of the whole urban canopy. When combined with parametrizations for the impacts of trees on airflow and hydrological processes in the urban surface layer, the new radiation model extends the applicability of urban canopy models and permits more robust assessment of trees as tools to manage urban climate, air quality, human comfort and building energy loads.     

A Method for Monitoring the Heat Flux from an Urban District with a Single Infrared Remote Sensor

The proposed methodology relies on the modelling capabilities of the thermo-radiative model Solene to simulate the heat and radiation energy exchanges between an actual urban district and the atmosphere. It is based on the comparison of the simulated upward infrared and sensible heat flux diurnal cycles that may be measured by elevated sensors above the three-dimensional scene, as a function of sensor position: the heat flux is a function of an equivalent surface temperature given by the infrared sensor and an equivalent heat transfer coefficient deduced from Solene simulations with the actual geometry. The method is tested against measurements obtained in the city centre of Toulouse, France during an experimental campaign in 2004–2005. To improve the computation of the heat exchanges between air and building surfaces a new algorithm is first implemented, based on an empirical model of the wind distribution within street canyons. This improvement is assessed by a direct comparison of the simulated brightness surface temperatures of the Toulouse city centre to measurements obtained with an airborne infrared sensor. The optimization of the infrared remote sensor position is finally analyzed as a function of its height above the mean roof level: it allows evaluation of the heat flux from an urban district when the three different classes of surfaces (roofs, walls, grounds) have similar contributions to the infrared flux towards the sensor, and to the heat flux into the atmosphere.     

城市化对北京一次极端降水过程影响的数值分析

通过敏感性试验探讨了城市化对北京2011年6月23日局地极端降水事件的影响.结果表明耦合了城市冠层模式的WRF系统能较好地模拟出强降水的局地性和突发性特征,考虑了精细下垫面分类的敏感性试验模拟降水更接近实况;下垫面城市化对地表能量平衡影响明显,对大气的热量影响除加强地表对边界层大气向上感热输送外,还会减少局地地表蒸发及大气水分供应,增加边界层高度,并对移经本地的天气系统强度及水汽输送产生较明显的影响.     

The multi-scale numerical modeling system for research on the relationship between urban planning and meteorological environment

Considering the urban characteristics, a customized multi-scale numerical modeling system is established to simulate the urban meteorological environment.THE system mainly involves three spatial scales;the urban scale, urban sub-domain scale, and single to few buildings scale. In it, different underlying surface types are employed, the building drag factor is used to replace its roughness in the influence on the urban wind field, the effects of building distribution, azimuth and screening of shortwave radiation are added, and the influence of anthropogenic heating is also taken into account. All the numerical tests indicate that the simulated results are reasonably in agreement with the observational data, so the system can be used to simulate the urban meteorological environment. Making use of it, the characteristics of the meteorological environment from the urban to urban sub-domain scales, even the among-buildings scale,can be recognized. As long as the urban planning scheme is given, the corresponding simulated results can be obtained so as to meet the need of optimizing urban planning.     

上海市城市暴雨内涝评估建模及模拟研究

随着城市化的推进,暴雨内涝逐渐成为许多城市的主要自然灾害,但当前暴雨内涝模型大多基于水动力学方法,需要大量的输入参数,不便于推广和应用。研究采用概化方法针对外环内中心城区构建上海暴雨内涝评估模型(Shanghai Urban Flooding Assessment Model,SUM),通过对接逐时次的降雨量,实现了对城市内涝的逐小时连续模拟。在此基础上,利用报警灾情资料和区内积水监测数据对模型模拟结果进行了评估。结果表明,该模型可以较好地模拟本市中心城区的内涝积水状况,且随着降雨量的增大,积水面积的增幅也逐渐变大;致灾阈值的分析表明浦西地区的内涝致灾雨量总体上低于浦东,其中本市黄浦、徐汇、虹口、闸北等中心城区以及宝山区部分街道的致灾雨量相对较低。     

基于MFD及实时路况的城市道路机动车排放计算方法

本文提出了基于交通流宏观基本图(MFD)以及实时路况数据的城市道路机动车排放计算方法,并以环境保护部发布的指导方法为参照,对所述方法进行了对比验证。以2015年3月北京市五环路高速,国道京福路,省道京周路的氮氧化物排放为例,两种方法计算结果平均偏差分别为?27.7%,?12.9%,?12.0%。因此,基于MFD及实时路况数据对交通流量及机动车排放的估算,可以较好地反映道路机动车的运行情况及排放特征,在构建应用于街区尺度模型的排放清单,城市区域道路机动车排放的时空分布特征等方面具有非常好的应用潜力。     

城市街区形态及冷却屋顶对冠层内辐射热通量的影响

在当前中国城市化进程愈演愈烈的情形下,城市热岛冷却效应的研究对于确立城市生态环境可持续化发展的正确途径等有重要意义。采用离线城市冠层模型分析了城市冠层中街区形态和屋顶材料的变化对辐射热量、表面温度及冠层内气温的影响。研究发现:建筑物高度、宽度以及街道宽度等参数的改变对冠层各表面温度的影响较大,当街道宽度增加3 m时,地面温度升高约3.5 K。但是街道宽度增加,多重反射导致的辐射截陷效应减弱,墙面上更多的热量释放出去,各墙面温度降低约1.5 K;冠层气温先增加,日出后降低约0.4 K。屋顶材料的改变对辐射及热通量和表面温度也有较大影响,与灰色水泥屋顶相比,采用高反照率白色涂料冷却屋顶后,屋顶净辐射热量损失约380 W m-2,屋顶表面温度降低约10 K。冠层内街区形态和屋顶材料对城市辐射热环境产生直接的影响。     

MM5模式中城市冠层参数化方案的设计及其数值试验

文中在综合国外一些较先进的中尺度模式城市作用参数化方案的基础上 ,从城市下垫面结构对城市边界层大气作用的物理机制及实际应用两方面出发 ,对城市下垫面结构和人为活动等因素对边界层结构的影响及中尺度模式中城市化作用的合理体现等问题进行了较全面的考虑 ,改进和设计出能够较全面、细致地描述城市结构对大气边界层动力、热力结构的影响 ,且适合中尺度模式结构特点的城市冠层参数化方案 (UCP) ,并实现了其与MM5模式的耦合。进行了耦合后的UCP方案及采用原城市作用方案的MM5模式对BECAPEX试验期间北京地区气象条件多重嵌套细尺度进行了模拟试验 ,并与观测结果对比 ,结果表明 :相比于MM 5模式中原有表示城市作用的参数化方案来讲 ,设计的UCP方案在很大程度上提高了MM 5模式对城市边界层热力和动力结构的模拟能力。     

晴天地表太阳辐射的参数化

讨论了晴天地表太阳总辐射和地表太阳净辐射瞬时值的参数化方法。首先利用辐射传输模式和中纬度夏季标准大气廓线,分谱带计算晴天各种大气条件下地表反射率取定值时的地表太阳总辐射,并把所得的结果作为标准资料,提出参数化方案。然后将地表反射率的影响作为误差项进行订正,从而得到各种地表反射率条件下的晴天地表太阳净辐射的计算方法。该方法的拟合精度较高,拟合值与辐射模式标准值的平均相对误差在0.3%以下。该参数化公式可以用于大尺度数值模式中地表辐射平衡的计算,以期达到地表辐射平衡计算与模式积分同步进行的目的。     

南京市夏季热岛特征及其与土地利用覆盖关系研究

利用南京市7月的Landsat TM热红外波段数据,根据单窗算法反演得到南京市地表温度,讨论了南京市热岛特征,并分析了产生这种现象的原因。通过遥感和地理信息系统相结合,运用Landsat TM数据,提取出南京市下垫面类型,分析了不同地表覆盖类型的热辐射特征并定量地分析了土地利用及植被对地表温度的影响。结果显示,南京市夏季主要存在3个热岛中心,分别是建成区、大厂区和八卦洲。南京城区地表温度明显比郊区地表温度高,通过地表温度对比分析发现,城区平均地表温度比城市边缘和远郊区地表温度分别高出3.5℃和5.7℃,城市热岛效应明显。不同地表覆盖类型的地表温度也有显著差异,从高到低依次为：城镇建设用地、耕地、草地、林地、水体。城镇建设用地与水体的表面温度最大相差14℃。城市地表温度与植被覆盖度具有明显的负相关关系,城市地表植被覆盖度低是城市热岛出现的主要原因,今后应当更加注重城市绿地建设,提高植被覆盖率。