数值模式地形处理方法与地形降水影响模拟研究回顾

本文从数值模式出发,回顾了数值模式中考虑地形影响的处理方法和模式地形构造方法,数值模拟地形对降水影响的一些研究成果,从而获得数值模式中地形处理方法及数值模拟地形降水特征及机理的认识。在数值模式中合理地考虑地形影响,提供更为真实的模式地形,将有助于提高数值模式的预报能力,从而提升天气预报的业务水平。      

“软地形”数值预报模式及其在新疆暴雨预报中的应用

本文利用一改进的有限区域五层原始方程模式,引入一个“软地形”模型,对发生于塔里木盆地边缘等三次暴雨过程作了数值模拟试验,结果表明:在考虑地形后,降水量预报与实况更为接近,地形效应使降水多沿山区分布。低层偏东气流对暴雨有较大贡献,它不但可输送水汽到雨区上空,而且使低层产生辐合上升运动。从而说明:“软地形”数值模式除可较好地模拟新疆暴雨大尺度天气系统的演变,对降水预报,在区域和强度上也有一定的能力。     

高分辨率地形资料应用对CMA-MESO模式地面气象要素的影响

真实地形包含各自不同尺度的地形特征,对各种时空大气运动有深刻影响。不同尺度的地形效应很难在数值模式的离散格点中准确刻画,是发展数值模式的难点问题之一。随着模式向亚千米级高分辨率发展,高分辨模式要求刻画出更高准确度的地形数据。本研究在CMA-MESO中引入ASTER-1s高精度地形数据和改进地形滤波函数,在滤去波长接近模式网格的小尺度地形的同时保留更多地形细节,以提高模式对地形的刻画准确度。通过冬、夏各1个月批量模拟试验结果与2万多个地面观测站点观测数据的对比,发现单独采用ASTER-1s地形而不改变CMA-MESO的地形滤波函数,模式对2 m气温和10 m风速的整体预报准确度提升较小,采用ASTER-1s地形并改进地形滤波函数明显提高了模式对2 m气温和10 m风速的预报准确度,对气温和风速的月平均均方根误差分别减少了6.4%和4.9%。夏季1个月批量试验显示,改进的新地形方案对降水预报提升较弱,未造成非真实的细碎降水分布或异常值。此外,动能谱分析新引入的地形和滤波函数未造成高频能量积累。研究结果表明新地形方案能够明显改进低层气温和风速的预报准确度,并且在数值上稳定可靠。     

一次燕山南麓局地大暴雨的成因分析及数值预报检验

利用常规观测资料、区域自动站、卫星云图及多普勒天气雷达资料,对2013年6月28—29日发生在秦皇岛地区一次局地大暴雨过程进行了综合分析,并从环流形势、影响系统、降水强度和落区等方面对多种数值预报进行检验。结果表明:中尺度对流复合体和线状回波中的超级单体,造成了北部山区的短时强降水,强降水区域位于黑体亮度温度TBB度最大处,燕山山脉地形抬升作用和中尺度风场辐合是本次过程的触发机制。多种数值模式产品对暴雨有一定的预报能力,但强降水中心都偏北,且未能体现出大于100?mm的大暴雨区域。对产生暴雨天气影响系统位置和强度的预报,不同的数值模式有所差异,ECMWF模式对亚洲地区中高空环流预报的结果更为准确,对弱高空槽系统预报偏差较大。冷涡天气形势下,当各种数值预报模式均预报有降水时,降水量级一致或相差不多,并且日本传真图在秦皇岛附近预报有25?mm左右降水中心时,考虑地形作用,秦皇岛北部山区降水量级可增加一个量级或稍大一些。由于各家数值预报对地形作用难以准确把握,从而对地形诱发的中小尺度系统容易漏报。     

GRAPES中地形重力波拖曳物理过程的引进和应用试验

在中国新一代全球中期/区域中尺度同化与预报系统(GRAPES)模式中引进了ECMWF地形重力波拖曳物理过程,填补了GRAPES全球中期数值预报系统中物理过程的空白。重新计算了地形重力波过程需要的地形静态资料数据,并与原ECMWF模式的地形静态参数进行了对比分析,验证了模式地形参数的正确性。利用GRAPES模式,进行了地形重力波拖曳物理过程影响的敏感性数值试验;结果表明:引进地形重力波拖曳过程以后,在存在大地形的区域,风场会发生变化,当纬向风遇到青藏高原时,一部分气流会产生爬坡效应而越过高原,使高原上空的西风气流减弱;另一部分气流会绕过高原,在高原的南侧产生绕流;随着模式积分时间的延长,风场变化会越来越明显,地形越复杂,风场的变化也越复杂;连续的模式积分试验结果显示,引进地形重力波过程,可以延长GRAPES模式的可用预报时效,提高了全球形势预报的准确率。通过对一次降水过程的模拟,对地形重力波过程影响降水预报的原因进行了简单分析。结果显示:引进地形重力波拖曳过程后,改变了大气流场的分布,使预报的流场更接近于大气真实状态,从而提高了降水预报的准确率。     

次网格地形坡度坡向参数化及其对区域气候模拟的影响

随着数值模式水平分辨率的提高，模式下垫面特征的描述更加仔细，针对东亚地区复杂的地形和植被特征，发展适合非均匀下垫面的地表通量参数化方案，对改进数值模式和刻画高原附近地区复杂地形动力和热力。效应的能力非常必要。本文通过计算次网格地形坡度、坡向参数及其对到达地面短波辐射通量的影响，提出次网格地形热力效应的参数化方案，改进数值模式中复杂地形区域地面热量平衡的计算。利用p—σ区域气候模式的数值试验结果表明，次网格地形热力效应参数化方案的引入，对东亚地区夏季气候尤其是降水的模拟有明显的改进。     

切比雪夫多项式在模式地形平滑中的应用研究

利用切比雪夫多项式展开滤波方法获得较为平滑的模式地形,并对2008年7月20～22日四川省一次大暴雨过程进行了数值模拟,通过地形敏感性试验讨论了地形对暴雨的影响作用以及平滑地形对GRAPES模式的适用性。结果表明,切比雪夫多项式展开滤波方案选取高阶截断项数,促使模式地形更为平滑,地形高度变化使得垂直速度发生变化,进而引起降水变化,上升运动强度增强(或减弱)引起该区域内雨强增强(或减弱)。2008年7月2～28日连续26天的试验表明,切比雪夫多项式展开滤波方案对GRAPES模式中的小雨和中雨预报有改善作用,对大雨和暴雨改善较小。总体来看,切比雪夫多项式在地形平滑中对降水预报有正的效果。     

WRF模式对浙江2011年夏季降水和温度预报评估及其湿过程敏感性分析

检验评估是数值天气预报的一个重要组成部分,评估结果是模式改进及其产品解释应用的重要依据。利用全省1500多个包括区域自动站在内的站点观测资料,采用要素的空间分布、时间演变和统计检验3种方法评价了WRF模式对浙江省2011年夏季（6—8月）降水和温度的整体预报性能;在此基础上,进一步对比分析了不同湿过程参数化方案对梅雨典型过程的预报效果,探讨了不同微物理参数化方案和积云参数化方案对模式预报降水的影响。结果表明,WRF模式能基本预报出降水和气温的细致空间分布形态及整体演变趋势,对于主要降水落区、高温区具有较好的指示性;就浙江省区域平均而言,在实况出现较大降水期间模式预报误差较小,而在实况出现小到中雨期间误差较大,主要表现为降水量的高估和气温的低估;模式湿过程中积云参数化方案对降水影响明显,它可以导致整体雨带偏移,采用Betts-Miller-Janjic积云对流参数化方案的预报降水更接近实况。这些信息对改进模式的精细化预报能力和高分辨率数值产品的解释应用具有一定的参考作用。     

一个有限区嵌套细网格模式的设计及预报结果检验

在钱永甫等研制的ｐ－σ混合坐标系原始方程模式的基础上，建立、发展了一有限区域的单向影响嵌套细网格数值预报模式，并选取台风Ｗａｙｎｅ对应的天气形势演变过程为例，通过与ＭＭ４模式对同一例预报结果的比较分析以及统计学检验，对该模式的预报能力进行了验证。结果表明，该模式能够较好地预报实际天气形势的演变过程，各层大气高度场的预报结果与实况的相关系数都超过０．７４。和ＭＭ４对温压场的预测结果相对比，二者间只有     

区域数值模式在长江下游地区持续性暴雨预报中的作用

文章通过对2001年8月5～10日长江下游地区连续性暴雨过程成因进行分析，认识到弱的热带低压系统对天气影响较大，要给予高度的重视。通过采用各种参数化方案进行数值模式计算，对降水量预报对比分析认为：区域数值预报中参数化方案的选择非常重要，其决定了降水定量预报的准确性，而参数化设置中以对流参数化方案的合理选取最为重要，它是影响区域数值预报的关键因素之一。另外水汽方案和行星边界层方案的选取也会影响数值预报结果。通过所选择的三种对流参数化方案对比分析，认为Betts-Miller方案和GRELL方案预报降水量各具特色，预报质量较高，而Kain-Fritsch方案预报能力相对较弱；水汽方案中单冰相比混合冰相方案预报降水量更为有效，行星边界层方案中Blackadar PBL方案比美国中期数值预报模式方案预报降水量误差小。     

青藏高原地形对孟加拉湾热带气旋影响的对比研究

本文用我们的实验室模拟、个例诊断分析的结果与综合分析方法得到的热带气旋的典型结构相对比，进一步探讨了高原地形对孟加拉湾热带气旋的影响（消亡及降水等）机制问题。     

Effects of terrain-following vertical coordinates on high-resolution NWP simulations

With increasing resolution in numerical weather prediction(NWP)models,the model topography can be described with finer resolution and includes steeper slopes.Consequently,negative effects of the traditional terrain-following vertical coordinate on high-resolution numerical simulations become more distinct due to larger errors in the pressure gradient force(PGF)calculation and associated distortions of the gravity wave along the coordinate surface.A series of numerical experiments have been conducted in this study,including idealized test cases of gravity wave simulation over a complex mountain,error analysis of the PGP estimation over a real topography,and a suite of real-data test cases.The GRAPES-Meso model is utilized with four different coordinates,i.e.,the traditional terrain-following vertical coordinate proposed by Gal-Chen and Somerville(hereinafter referred to as the Gal.C.S coordinate),the one-scale smoothed level(SLEVE1),the two-scale smoothed level(SLEVE2),and the COSINE(COS)coordinates.The results of the gravity wave simulation indicate that the GRAPES-Meso model generally can reproduce the mountain-induced gravity waves,which are consistent with the analytic solution.However,the shapes,vertical structures,and intensities of the waves are better simulated with the SLEVE2 coordinate than with the other three coordinates.The model with the COS coordinate also performs well,except at lower levels where it is not as effective as the SLEVE2 coordinate in suppressing the PGF errors.In contrast,the gravity waves simulated in both the Gal.C.S and SLEVE1 coordinates are relatively distorted.The estimated PGF errors in a rest atmosphere over the real complex topography are much smaller(even disappear at the middle and upper levels)in the GRAPES-Meso model using the SLEVE2 and COS coordinates than those using the Gal.C.S and SLEVE1 coordinates.The results of the real-data test cases conducted over a one-month period suggest that the three modified vertical coordinates(SLEVE1,SLEVE2,and COS coordinates)give better results than the traditional Gal.C.S coordinate in terms of forecasting bias and root mean square error,and forecasting anomaly correlation coefficients.In conclusion,the SLEVE2 coordinate is proved to be the best option for the GRAPES-Meso model.     

High-Resolution Hindcast of Record-Breaking Rainfall in Beijing and Impact of Topography

In this paper,a hindcast study of the record-breaking rainfall event occurring in Beijing on 21July 2012,is conducted by using the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF)model forced by National Centers for Environmental Prediction(NCEP)Global Forecasting System(GFS)outputs,paired with an investigation of the impact of topography in this region.The results indicate that WRF can reasonably predict the salient features of orographic precipitation;the 24-h rainfall amount and spatial distribution compare reasonably well with the observations.The hindcast simulation also indicates that rainfall events can be predicted approximately 36 h ahead.When the topography is removed,the spatial distribution of rainfall changes remarkably,suggesting the importance of the topography in determining rainfall structure.These results also indicate that prediction of such city-scale heavy rainfall events would benefit from a high-resolution prediction system.     

TEST OF A TROPICAL LIMITED AREA NUMERICAL PREDIC-TION MODEL INCLUDING EFFECT OF REAL TOPOGRAPHY

In this paper, a tropical limited numerical prediction p.e. model in sigma coordinate is developed. The predicted variables are deviations from a rest reference atmosphere. This transformation is of benefit in reducing truncation error and guarantees computational stability after the very steep real topography is introduced into the model. The numerical tests with this model show that the large-scale obstacle of the Tibetan Plateau is not negligible in forecasting tropical systems like the South China Sea typhoon.     

数值预报模式中的"软高原"模型

介绍一种处理数值预报模式中青藏高原地形的简单方法。即在初始时刻用一个稳定的、平衡的、与外界大气在动力上协调衔接的静止空气堆来取代高原地形,这个方案用于一个五层有限区域细网格原始方程模式中,作梅雨季华中地区短期(24小时)暴雨区预报,效果良好。      

Grapes模式预报西南地区夏季2m温度的检验评估

利用西南地区2004、2005年夏季的实况温度对G rapes模式输出的2m温度预报产品进行检验,结果表明,不管是单日预报误差还是月平均预报误差,都没有随预报时效的延长而增大,对四川盆地大部分地区,模式预报温度偏高,对重庆、云南、贵州及川西高原南部的温度预报,基本上表现为14时偏高,02时偏低,对川西高原北部和西藏则表现为预报温度偏低。分析表明,模式中对高原地形处理的不真实是温度预报产生误差的重要原因之一,利用回归分析方法能对模式温度预报进行有效的订正。检验分析结果为进一步改进模式,提高要素预报产品质量提供了一定的依据。      

Design and test of an improved scheme for global spectral model with reduced truncation error

An improved scheme of spectral model has been investigated in this paper. Through the introduction of a reference atmosphere, prognostic variables become smoother on the tilled sigma-surface over mountains or a frontal zone, and thus truncation errors are reduced. As a result, the problems about Gibbs waves and negative value of model topography on the sea, which are encountered in the current spectral model in the world, can be solved by the improved scheme. For comparison we have performed the numerical integrations of barotropic and baroclinic Rossby-Haurwitz waves, as well as the prediction of real cases with the improved scheme and the current scheme of spectral model. These results show that the scheme presented in the paper is better than the current scheme of spectral model.     

A New Strategy for Solving a Class of Constrained Nonlinear Optimization Problems Related to Weather and Climate Predictability

There are three common types of predictability problems in weather and climate, which each involve different constrained nonlinear optimization problems: the lower bound of maximum predictable time, the upper bound of maximum prediction error, and the lower bound of maximum allowable initial error and parameter error. Highly efficient algorithms have been developed to solve the second optimization problem. And this optimization problem can be used in realistic models for weather and climate to study the upper bound of the maximum prediction error. Although a filtering strategy has been adopted to solve the other two problems, direct solutions are very time-consuming even for a very simple model, which therefore limits the applicability of these two predictability problems in realistic models. In this paper, a new strategy is designed to solve these problems, involving the use of the existing highly efficient algorithms for the second predictability problem in particular. Furthermore, a series of comparisons between the older filtering strategy and the new method are performed. It is demonstrated that the new strategy not only outputs the same results as the old one, but is also more computationally efficient. This would suggest that it is possible to study the predictability problems associated with these two nonlinear optimization problems in realistic forecast models of weather or climate.     

MOS方法在动力延伸期候平均气温预报中的应用

利用1982年1月-2010年3月动力延伸预报产品及宁夏候平均气温,采用逐步回归的MOS统计方法,预报宁夏24个测站未来40 d逐候平均气温,为了对比模式直接输出结果与资料按月和按季节划分建立的MOS方法预报效果,对2009年和2010年1-3月的预报效果分别进行了对比检验.结果表明:MOS预报效果较模式直接输出有显著...