吉林省城市住宅采暖气候耗能距平序列的建立方法

由于中国社会经济统计资料中均缺乏历年采暖能源消费数据,在分析气候变化对采暖能耗的影响时,始终存在着一个瓶颈。为此,提出了一种城市住宅采暖气候耗能距平序列的建立方法,这种方法把气候变化因素与相关的社会经济因素（如人口、人均居住面积等）结合在一起,较直观地反映了气候变化对城市住宅采暖耗能的影响。以地处高纬的吉林省为例,利用吉林省历年城镇人口、城镇人均居住面积、采暖度日数以及单位面积采暖耗煤量指标,建立了吉林省历年采暖气候耗能距平序列。结果表明：相对于1971-2000年30 a平均气候状况,吉林省2001/2002年的采暖期理论上因气候偏暖可以节约35.98万t标准煤,而2000/2001年采暖期因气候偏冷需要增加15.5万t标准煤。     

吉林省城市住宅采暖气候耗能距平序列的建立方法

 由于中国社会经济统计资料中均缺乏历年采暖能源消费数据,在分析气候变化对采暖能耗的影响时,始终存在着一个瓶颈。为此,提出了一种城市住宅采暖气候耗能距平序列的建立方法,这种方法把气候变化因素与相关的社会经济因素（如人口、人均居住面积等）结合在一起,较直观地反映了气候变化对城市住宅采暖耗能的影响。以地处高纬的吉林省为例,利用吉林省历年城镇人口、城镇人均居住面积、采暖度日数以及单位面积采暖耗煤量指标,建立了吉林省历年采暖气候耗能距平序列。结果表明：相对于1971-2000年30 a平均气候状况,吉林省2001/2002年的采暖期理论上因气候偏暖可以节约35.98万t标准煤,而2000/2001年采暖期因气候偏冷需要增加15.5万t标准煤。     

长江三角洲城市发展与人体舒适度的关系

为研究城市人体舒适度变化和城市化进程的关系,明确影响人体舒适度的主要城市因子,该文首先利用1981—2010年长江三角洲地区上海、南京、杭州、合肥的气象数据,研究气候舒适度及其变化趋势,并研究了影响人体舒适度的主要城市因子。研究结果表明:上海、南京、杭州、合肥冷不舒适日数均呈减少趋势,热不舒适日数均呈增加趋势,舒适日数变化不大。城市化综合水平与冷不舒适日数倾向率之间达到显著相关水平,与热不舒适日数倾向率之间相关不显著。影响长江三角洲地区人体舒适度的最主要城市因子为总人口数量,其次为建成区面积、总用电量、公共交通实有车辆、人均绿地面积等。     

北京市城市化对地表温度时空特征的影响

分别采用常规气象数据和遥感资料,结合城市化发展总体水平不同的三大板块,分析北京市城市化对地表温度时空变化特征的影响。(1)将北京市1978—2006年常规气象站点的陆表温度(Land Surface Temperature,LST)观测资料与三大板块结合,分析城市化对LST年、季、白天、夜间、最大值和最小值的影响。发现1978—2006年期间,北京市三大板块LST均值总体上均呈上升趋势,且大多数情况下,第一板块的第二板块的第三板块的。(2)采用北京市2001年和2006年全年的EOS MODIS MOD 13归一化植被指数(Normalized Difference Vegetation Index,NDVI)产品以及MOD11白天/夜间LST产品,分析城市化过程中下垫面变化对LST的影响。总体上,北京市2006年较2001年NDVI减少的比例为51.3%,白天LST升高的比例为73.74%,夜间LST升高的比例高达90.92%。(3)北京市2006年与2001年NDVI的差值以及白天、夜间LST的差值的联合分类结果表明,第一和第二板块均表现出2006年较2001年NDVI减少、白天LST增加的类别所占的百分比最大,分别占54.29%和40.95%,而且均大于其在第三板块中所占的比例34%,而三个板块中NDVI增加、白天LST减少的百分比与NDVI减少、白天LST增加的百分比之和均超过了50%。第一、第二和第三板块中2006年较2001年NDVI减少、夜间LST增加的类别所占百分比分别为51.67%、44.2%和42.46%。这些数据定量地说明了城市化过程中下垫面变化对白天、夜间LST的影响。     

面向地震设防风险的未来中国城乡人口情景及暴露特征

中国城镇和乡村住房建筑地震设防水平差距较大,暴露在低设防农村与高密集城镇下的人口因此面临较高的地震风险,面向地震设防风险分析未来城乡人口及暴露特征具有重要意义。本文基于地震烈度区划图和人口-发展-环境（PDE）模型,模拟分析了5种共享社会经济路径（SSPs）情景下的未来城乡人口地震灾害时空暴露。结果表明：(1)除SSP3下城镇人口数量持续增加外,其他SSP情景下各地区城镇人口数量均先增后降,农村人口数量受城镇化影响呈持续下降趋势;(2)城镇与农村地震灾害高、较高人口暴露等级空间分布相似,集中在华北、西南与东部沿海地区;(3)相较于有设防的城镇地区,无设防农村地震人口暴露等级偏高,高暴露、较高暴露等级的数量偏多,未来城镇人口暴露等级有所上升,而农村人口暴露等级逐渐降低。     

全球1970—2007年碳排放与城市化关联机理分析

利用世界银行1970—2007年的112个国家（地区）的人均碳排放量和城市化率数据,基于SPSS与Eviews软件,分析城市化水平与人均碳排放量的关联机理。结果表明,随着城市化水平的上升,人均碳排放量逐步增加;40%的城市化率是人均碳排放变化的转折点;在相近城市化水平下,经济发展水平较高地区和化石能源主产区的人均碳排放高于其他地区。格兰杰因果检验表明,人均碳排放与城市化之间基本存在着格兰杰因果关系;地区之间的格兰杰因果检验结果既有共性,也有差异。     

北京市丰台区日照时数变化规律及影响因素分析

本文使用北京市丰台区50年的年日照时数和视障碍现象资料,采用气候突变检测、相关分析等方法分析发现:北京丰台区的日照时数呈现显著减少趋势,趋势递减率为-146.1h/10a、有些年份年日照时数达到了世界气象组织规定的气候异常的标准。而相同时段丰台区的视障碍现象有显著增加,二者呈负相关关系,相关系数为-0.626。分析年日照时数减少的真正原因是城市化带来的影响。将年日照时数的变化与城市化相关联,这在以往的文献中很少述及,本文可为我国未来城市化发展对环境的影响提供借鉴。     

武汉市夏季空调销量的气候预测及空调指数研究

利用武汉市１９９３－１９９８年各月空调销售量资料及同期气候资料,采取相关分析,逐步回归分析等方法,分析了武汉市夏季空调销售量与气象因子之间的关系。结果表明,武汉市空调销售量与夏季高温天数,气温日较差,月平均相对湿度、月平均最低温度等因子有较好的相关关系,以此为基础,建立了年、月空调销售预报方程,并研制出一套空调销售（开机）指数。     

气象探测环境等级评估方法及应用

利用1990,1994,2000,2005,2011,2013年夏季北京地区Landsat卫星资料、2009年数字高程资料计算气象站周边景观指标参数,结果表明:土地利用类型、气象站周边景观指数、建筑物高度及天空可视因子等参数能对气象探测环境的结构配置信息以数字化方式呈现。此外,景观指标参数和气象要素相关分析表明:对气温变化影响较大的景观指标参数主要有城镇面积、水体面积、最大斑块指数、最大斑块占城镇面积比例、蔓延度指数、平均分维数和天空可视因子。对绝对湿度影响较大的景观指标参数为城镇面积、水体面积、最大斑块指数、最大斑块占城镇面积比例、蔓延度指数、聚集度指数和天空可视因子。对小风占比影响较大的景观指标参数仅为水体面积、最大斑块指数和最大斑块占城镇面积比例。基于以上统计结果,提出了一套对探测环境进行评估的方法——景观指标评估法。利用该方法对北京市15个国家级地面气象观测站进行评估,结果表明:周围环境对观测资料影响程度最小的站为怀柔站;环境影响最大的站为丰台站、朝阳站。     

东北平原腹地城市化与城市热岛的可能驱动因子

用近50年逐日气象观测记录和城市发展统计资料分析了东北平原腹地3个不同规模城市,即大城市长春,中等城市延吉和山区小城镇临江的年和季节平均气温、最高最低气温等,发现其差别很大,其排序不一定同城市化速率(人口和国内生产总值GDP)、土地利用或能见度趋势对应。但气温日较差趋势均与城市化速率成比例。3个城市气温趋势均表现为变暖,且最低气温趋势大于最高气温趋势;冬季变暖强于夏季。这说明影响夜间或冬季气温的才是城市热岛的主要驱动因子。冬、夏最高气温趋势排序一致,除临江外,最低气温趋势排序与最高气温相反。临江冬季最低气温趋势最强,可能与其特殊地理环境造成的弱风气候有关。最低气温趋势排序与城市化速率排序大致相同,最高气温趋势排序相反。综合对比分析表明,这3个城市气候变暖差异的主要因子不可能是土地利用,而是城市人为热释放和空气污染,后者主要影响夜间的射出长波辐射。二者的影响范围趋势应该同城市化速率成比例,对气温趋势有明显影响。其次,不能忽略地理环境因子对气温趋势及其排序的影响。不过,气温日较差在一定程度上可以削弱城市地理因素等的影响,其趋势是一个反映城市化对气候影响的的合适指标。研究还表明,需要重视空气污染对长波辐射的影响并应该在数值模式辐射参数化中加以考虑。     

IMPROVING THE EFFECT OF GREENING ON HEAT ISLAND IN URBAN RESIDENTIAL DISTRICTS BASED ON REMOTE SENSING AND GIS ANALYSIS

Analyzing the thermal distribution on plane conditions objectively is difficult due to lack of enough meteorological observation stations within urban residential areas. In this paper satellite observations synchronous or quasi-synchronous with ground observations are adopted, and a teleconnection model is built between the satellite spectral and surface temperature for quantitative retrieval of temperature. Furthermore, by combining the satellite data with other multiple factors, a GIS comprehensive analysis model and a functional evaluation method for urban residential districts are established, which are used to study the relation between the air temperature and media characteristics on ground as well as the greening cooling effect in recent years in Shanghai. The results show that the air temperature in greened urban residential districts is generally lower than the average temperature and much less than the highest one. In general, the average air temperature in the greened area is at most 1.19℃ lower than the maximum temperature in the districts, which is 0.67℃ and 0.55℃ lower than that of the highest for buildings and roads respectively. The temperature is inversely proportional with greening fraction but is directly proportional with the ratio of roads and buildings. The higher the greening fraction in internal residential districts, the lower the temperature, and the higher the ratio of road and building is, the higher the temperature.     

Characteristics of the heat island effect in Shanghai and its possible mechanism

The characteristics of the urban heat island effect and the climate change in Shanghai and its possible mechanism are analyzed based on monthly meteorological data from 1961 to 1997 at 16 stations in Shanghai and its adjacent areas. The results indicate that Shanghai City has the characteristics of a heat island of air temperature and maximum and minimum air temperature, a cold island of surface soil temperature, a weak rainy island of precipitation, and a turbid island of minimum visibility and aerosols, with centers at or near Longhua station (the urban station of Shanghai). Besides theses, the characteristics of a cloudy island and sunshine duration island are also obvious, but their centers are located in the southern part of the urban area and in the southern suburbs. A linear trend analysis suggests that all of the above urban effects intensified from 1961 to 1997. So far as the heat island effect is concerned, the heat island index (difference of annual temperature between Longhua and Songjiang stations) strengthens (weakens) as the economic development increases (decreases). The authors suggest that the heating increase caused by increasing energy consumption due to economic development is a main factor in controlling the climate change of Shanghai besides natural factors. On the other hand, increasing pollution aerosols contribute to the enhancement of the turbid island and cooling. On the whole, the heating effect caused by increasing energy consumption is stronger than the cooling effect caused by the turbid island and pollution aerosols.     

Effects of climate change on building energy consumption in cities

Summary Sensitivity of building-energy consumption to changing urban environments is examined by simulating building energy loads in hypothetical urban settings. A modified version of an algorithm developed by the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory is used to evaluate energy requirements. Energy loads for two buildings of interest are estimated for changing climatic conditions (air temperature) as well as changing environments around the building. An isolated building and a building surrounded by several other buildings are considered.Results indicate that climate warming may lead to energy savings in a wide range of climates while savings also depend on the nature of the building and its use. In cool climates, climate warming forces net energy-load decreases through reductions of the winter heating loads. For example, a one-degree increase in annual air temperature in Duluth led to a 10 kWh decrease in net energy loads for a small office building. In warm climates, urbanization tends to accelerate energy consumption although shadowing may contribute significantly to decreases in summer cooling loads. In Phoenix, annual mean daily net energy loads decreased by about 10 kWh due to shadowing for the same office building. Even in relatively cool regions, summer cooling-load reductions caused by shadowing are effective.With 12 Figures     

Estimating the ecological footprint of the heat island effect over Athens, Greece

Heat island is a very well documented climatic phenomenon that has an important energy and environmental impact in the urban environment. The main energy problems are related to the important increase of the energy consumption for cooling purposes as well as to the important increase of the peak electricity load. Heat island in Athens, Greece, is measured during the last decade and its energy impact is calculated in details. The aim of the present paper is to estimate the direct and indirect environmental impact of the heat island effect in Athens. This is achieved through the estimation of the additional ecological footprint caused by the urban heat island phenomenon over the city. The ecological footprint estimation is performed at a first step by calculating the increase of the cooling demand caused by the heat island over the whole city and then by translating the energy to environmental cost. Two years annual experimental data from many urban stations have been used. The results show that the ecological footprint because of the heat island ranges 1.5–2 times the city’s political area that have to be reserved every year to compensate the additional CO₂ emissions caused by the presence of the heat island effect while the maximum potential ecological footprint, provided that all buildings are air conditioned, is almost 110,000 hectares.     

利用采暖/制冷度日分析建筑能耗变化的适用性评估

采暖/制冷度日与建筑能耗有显著线性关系,被认为是最简单可靠的衡量能源需求的指标,但其适用性还缺乏全面的评估。通过模拟1961-2009年天津市办公、商场以及不同节能水平的居住建筑能耗,分析了能耗与采暖/制冷度日的关系,确定其反映能耗变化的适用性。结果表明：采暖期办公及商场建筑的热负荷与采暖度日的相关性达到极显著水平（P<0.01）,决定系数（R2）分别为0.99和0.97;制冷期冷负荷与制冷度日的关系尽管也达到极显著水平,但决定系数仅分别为0.64和0.55;不同节能水平居住建筑热负荷与采暖度日极显著相关,决定系数均在0.99以上。研究认为：采暖度日可以反映办公、商场及居住建筑的热负荷特征,用于分析气候变化对能耗的影响是可行的;但制冷度日不能完全反映办公及商场建筑冷负荷的变化,仅可分别解释冷负荷变化的64%和55%,单纯用制冷度日研究能耗变化是不够全面的。通过分析能耗与气候要素的关系发现,冬季采暖期能耗主要受气温的影响,而夏季制冷能耗受气温和湿度的共同影响。     

城市化对北京单次极端高温过程影响的数值模拟研究

城市化对高温热浪的频次和强度具有重要影响,但目前对于城市化影响高温热浪过程的机理了解还不充分。本文利用WRF模式,对2010年7月2～6日（北京时）北京一次高温过程进行了模拟,分析了城市化对此次高温过程的影响机理。采用优化后的WRF模式,能够模拟出北京连续5日高温的特征和城市热岛强度的变化。城市下垫面的不透水性决定了城区2 m高度处相对湿度低于乡村,削弱了城区通过潜热调节城市气温的能力。日落后,城市感热通量下降缓慢,城区降温速率小于乡村,夜间边界层稳定、高度低,风速小,抑制了城乡之间能量的传输,形成了夜间强的城市热岛强度,造成夜间城市气温明显高于乡村。日出后城乡地面感热通量、潜热通量迅速上升,边界层稳定性下降。午后,城市下垫面分别为地表感热通量和潜热通量的高、低值中心,通过潜热调节气温的能力被削弱;边界层稳定性降低,有利于能量的垂直扩散;此时,城市热岛强度小于夜间。因此,北京城市下垫面形成了明显的城市热岛效应,加重了城区极端高温事件的强度。此外,在这次高温热浪期间,中国东部大部分地区受到大陆暖高压控制,晴空少云,西北气流越山后形成焚风效应,是北京地区高温热浪形成的天气背景。     

Thermal Energy Balance Analysis of the Tokyo Metropolitan Area Using a Mesoscale Meteorological Model Incorporating an Urban Canopy Model

The summer climate around the Tokyo metropolitan area has been analysed on an urban scale, and the regional characteristics of the thermal energy balance of a bayside business district in the centre of Tokyo (Otemachi) have been compared with an inland residential district (Nerima), using a mesoscale meteorological model incorporating an urban canopy model. From the results of the analysis, the mechanism of diurnal change in air temperature and absolute humidity in these areas is quantitatively demonstrated, with a focus on the thermal energy balance. Moreover, effective countermeasures against urban heat-islands are considered from the viewpoint of each region’s thermal energy balance characteristics. In addition to thermal energy outflux by turbulent diffusion, advection by sea-breezes from Tokyo Bay discharges sensible heat in Otemachi. This mitigates temperature increases during the day. On the other hand, because all sea-breezes must first cross the centre of Tokyo, it has less of a cooling effect in Nerima. As a result, the air temperature during the day in Nerima is higher than that in Otemachi.     

气候变化对天津市不同节能水平建筑制冷采暖能耗的影响

利用天津市地面气象观测站1961—2017年逐小时观测资料,通过TRNSYS软件,对不同节能水平办公建筑供热和制冷能耗,以及居住建筑供热能耗进行动态模拟,定量评估了气候变化对天津市不同节能水平建筑能耗的影响。结果表明：在供暖期和制冷期,温度均呈现显著上升的趋势,而太阳辐射则呈现下降的趋势,受其影响,1961—2017年办公和居住建筑供热能耗呈现显著下降的趋势,制冷能耗呈现微弱的上升趋势,但气候变化对供热能耗的影响要明显强于制冷能耗;随着建筑节能水平的提升,供热和制冷能耗均有一定程度的下降,其中供热能耗的降幅尤为明显,四步节能居住建筑相比于一步到三步节能居住建筑,供热能耗分别下降了53.56%、50.13%和21.25%。对新建建筑及既有建筑的节能改造,应充分考虑不同节能水平对建筑能耗的影响,结合实际需求酌情进行升级改造。除此之外,建筑节能水平的提升,会使其供热和制冷能耗变化量随温度的上升而减小,说明其对气候变化的敏感性在逐渐减弱。因此,提高建筑节能水平,可以更好的应对气候变化,保证其在未来的使用中耗能更低。