A Comparative Analysis of Primary and Extreme Characteristics of Dry or Wet Status between Asia and North America

In this study, the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) was used to analyze the average and extreme dry/wet states of Asia and North America from 1953 to 2003. The results indicate that the two continents underwent drying trends during this period. Compared with North America, Asia showed more severe drought trends. However, more significant and regular seasonal variation for drought was found in North America. The driest regions in Asia were located in the northern region of China, Mongolia, and eastern mid-Siberian plateau. Most regions in central North America were relatively wetter than other regions. The northern and southwestern regions of North America, as well as the Atlantic and Pacific coastal areas, experienced the most drought during this period. A sharp increase of the drought area and the number of extreme drought events took place from 1997 to 2003 in both Asia and North America. Severe drought events were more likely to occur during the summer on both continents. Asia had the most extreme drought events during July, but North America reached its highest drought frequency from June to September. In Asia, a persistent increasing trend of extreme drought emerged throughout the studied period. However, a more complex evolution of drought emerged in North America: a decreasing trend appeared before the mid-1960s and an increasing trend appeared after the late 1970s. A relatively steady dry/wet status was observed between the mid-1960s and the late 1970s. The role of exceptional, extreme drought events with respect to the La Nin?a event was considered during 1997–2003.     

ANALYSIS OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY IN THE JINSHA RIVER VALLEY

Monthly mean surface air temperatures and precipitation at 20 meteorological stations in the Jinsha River Valley(JRV) of southwest China were analyzed for temporal-spatial variation patterns during the period 1961-2010.The magnitude of a trend was estimated using Sen's Nonparametric Estimator of Slope approach.The statistical significance of a trend was assessed by the MK test.The results showed that mean annual air temperature has been increasing by 0.08℃/decade during the past 50 years as a whole.The climate change trend in air temperature was more significant in the winter(0.13℃/decade) than in the summer(0.03℃/decade).Annual precipitation tended to increase slightly thereafter and the increasing was mainly during the crop-growing season.Both the greatest variation of the annual mean temperature and annual precipitation were observed at the dry-hot valley area of middle reaches.Significant warming rates were found in the upper reaches whereas the dry-hot basins of middle reaches experienced a cooling trend during the past decades.Despite of the overall increasing in precipitation,more obvious upward-trends were found in the dry-hot basins of middle reaches whereas the upper reaches had a drought trend during the past decades.     

A Parameterization of Bowen Ratio with Respect to Soil Moisture Availability

The Bowen ratio (B) is impacted by 5 environmental elements: soil moisture availability, m, the ratio of resist-ances between atmosphere and soil pores, ra/rd, atmospheric relative humidity, h, atmospheric stability, ΔT, and environment temperature. These impacts have been investigated over diverse surfaces, including bare soil, free water surface, and vegetation covered land, using an analytical approach. It was concluded that: (a) B is not a continuous function. The singularity exists at the condition αhcb=h, occurring preferably in the following conditions: weak turbulence, stable stratified stability, dry soil, and humid air, where hcb, defined by Eq.(11) is a critical variable. The existence of a singularity makes the dependence of B on the five variables very complicated. The value of B approaches being inversely proportional to m under the conditions m≥mfc (the soil capacity) and / or ra/rd→0. The proportional coefficient changes with season and latitude with relatively high values in winter and over the poles; (b) B is nearly independent of ra/rd during the day. The impact of m on B is much larger as compared to that of ra/rd on B, (c) when h increases, the absolute value of B also increases; (d) over bare soil, when the absolute surface net radiation increases, the absolute value of B will increase. The impact of RN on B is larger at night than during the day, and (e) over plant canopy, the singularity and the dependcies of B on m, ra , and h are modified as compared to that over bare soil. Also (i) during the daytime unstable condition, m exerts an even stronger impact on B, at night, however, B changes are weak in response to the change in m; (ii) the value of B is much more sensitive in response to the changes of turbulent intensity; (iii) the B response to the variation of h over a vegetation covered area is weaker; and (iv) the singularity exists at the condition hcp=h instead of αhcb=h as over bare soil, where hcp is defined by Eq.(49). The formulas derived over bare soil also hold the same when applied to free water bodies as long as they are visualized as a special soil in which the volumetric fraction of soil pore is equal to one and are fully filled with water. Finally, the above discussions, are used to briefly study the impact on the thermally induced mesoscale circulations.     

Relationships between surface albedo,soil thermal parameters and soil moisture in the semi-arid area of Tongyu,northeastern China

Continuous observation data collected over the whole year of 2004 on a cropland surtace m Tongyu, a senti-arid area of northeastern China （44°25＇N, 122°52＇E）, have been used to investigate the variations of surface albedo and soil thermal parameters, including heat capacity, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity, and their relationships to soil moisture. The diurnal variation of surface albedo appears as a U shape curve on sunny days. Surface albedo decreases with the increase of solar elevation angle, and it tends to be a constant when solar elevation angle is larger than 40°. So the daily average surface albedo was computed using the data when solar elevation angle is larger than 40° Mean daily surface albedo is found to decrease with the increase of soil moisture, showing an exponential dependence on soil moisture. The variations of soil heat capacity are small during Julian days 90 300. Compared with the heat capacity, soil thermal conductivity has very gentle variations during this period, but the soil thermal diffusivity has wide variations during the same period. The soil thermal conductivity is found to increase as a power function of soil moisture. The soil thermal diffusivity increases firstly and then decreases with the increase of soil moisture.     

Drought Response to Air Temperature Change over China on the Centennial Scale

Climate data from the Climatic Research Unit(CRU) for the period 1901–2013 are used to investigate the drought response to air temperature change over China on the centennial scale. Drought is observed to have increased evidently across China, except for some regions in eastern China. This increase is much stronger in northern China compared to southern China, especially in Northwest and North China. These change characteristics of drought are closely associated with air temperature change, with the severe droughts in the major drought episodes of the last century generally coinciding with higher temperatures. The significantly increasing trend of drought in China based on observations only appears when considering the effects of air temperature change,which can explain ~49% of droughts in observations and30%–65% of droughts in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5(CMIP5) model simulations. Furthermore, the response of drought to air temperature change generally increases as the drought time scale increases.Furthermore, drought shows relatively high sensitivity in spring and early summer in China on the centennial scale.     

The Variability of the Interannual Oscillations of the Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall

A new method of analysis namely, Singular Spectrum Analysis (SSA) is applied to the Indian Summer Monsoon (June-September) Rainfall (ISMR) series. The method is efficient in extracting the statistically significant oscillations with periods 2.8 and 2.3 year from the white noise of the ISMR series. The study shows that 2.8 / 2.3 year cycle captures the variability of the ISMR related to Southern Oscillation / Quasi Biennial Oscillation. The temporal structure of these oscillations show that these are in phase in extreme (excess and drought) monsoon conditions as well as in El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) years. Both these oscillations show minimum variability during the period 1920-1940 and there is an increasing trend in the variability of these oscillations in the recent decades. The study enables to obtain pure signal consisting of reconstructed time series using these two Oscillations, from the original white noise series.     

EFFECT OF TROPICAL CYCLONE PRECIPITATION ON ALLEVIATING THE DROUGHT SITUATION IN THE SOUTHEAST COASTAL REGIONS OF CHINA DURING SUMMER AND AUTUMN: USING THE IMPROVED OBJECTIVE SYNOPTIC ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE

To quantitatively study the role of tropical cyclone precipitation (TCP) on alleviating the drought in the southeast coastal region of China (SCR) during summer and autumn, the objective synoptic analysis technique (OSAT), improved for consistency and rationality, was used to separate the TCP data on the summers and autumns of 1963–2005 on the basis of daily precipitation data from stations and tropical cyclone best track data. After defining the season drought index, the actual drought distribution and the assumed drought distribution without TCP were acquired. The results showed that within 1 000 km from the southeast coastline of China, TCP accounted for 11.3% of natural precipitation (NP). Without TCP, the drought index in the SCR during summer would have increased from 0.2 to 0.6 or even above 1.0 in some regions whereas the drought index during autumn would have increased from 0.4 to 0.6 or above 1.2 in some regions. The impact of TCP on drought decreases progressively from the southeast coastline to the inland regions. The TCP proportion (TCPP) showed a significant negative correlation with the drought index in many regions of the southeast, and the significant region is wider in autumn than in summer. TCP relieved the drought most significantly within a range of 0–500 km from the southeast coastline. This drought relief showed different characteristics for the interannual variability in summer and autumn, and the cross wavelet transform indicated that the impact of TCP on drought mainly lies in 2–4-year time scales. In particular, there was a significant effect during the summers of 1977–1985 and in the autumns following that of 1985. Therefore, TCP has indeed largely alleviated drought in the SCR during summer and autumn.     

INTEGRATED RISK ASSESSMENT OF MAJOR METEOROLOGICAL DISASTERS WITH PAPRIKA PEPPER IN HAINAN PROVINCE

Paprika pepper, as one of the main vegetable crops, is originated in the tropics and now widely planted in the world for its dietary therapy and medicinal functions. For its typical physiological properties referring to low tolerances to flood, drought and cold, paprika pepper often suffers from one or several disasters during its growing period, especially under tropical climate. Paprika pepper in Hainan, as a typical region of tropical climate in China, sustains flood, chilling and drought disaster risks induced by varied weather systems. This study was to develop and employ appropriate indices to assess hazard, sensitivity, vulnerability and prevention capability for major disasters during paprika pepper growth period, using long-term meteorological data from 1998 to 2011, actual disasters record from 1999 to 2011, production and socioeconomic statistics from 2002 to 2011 at 18 weather stations. Based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process and Entropy method, the combined weight was given to each disaster factor, thus an integrated disaster risk assessment model was developed and applied at regional level. High flood hazard mainly occurred in eastern Hainan, high chilling hazard in north and central mountain areas, and high drought hazard in the western part of Hainan. Drought and chilling sensitivity had a similar spatial distribution which decreased from central to coastal regions while flood sensitivity was the opposite. High vulnerability of the disasters mainly occurred in central regions, similar to low prevention capability. Eastern Hainan suffered from high integrated damage risk. The predicted damage occurrence showed a good agreement with the occurrence of actual disasters. We concluded that an integrated damage risk assessment model could provide a new tool to assess major meteorological disasters and help farmers and policy makers to alleviate the risks of major meteorological disasters for paprika pepper, which seems also suitable for other crops.     

Comparison of CO2 Effluxes and Their Driving Factors Between Two Temperate Steppes in Inner Mongolia, China

Soil respiration is a key component of the global terrestrial ecosystem carbon cycle. The static opaque chamber method was used to measure the CO2 effluxes from soil of a semiarid Aneurolepidium chinense steppe and a Stipa krylovii steppe in the Xilin River Basin of Inner Mongolia, China from March 2002 to December 2004. The results indicated that the soil respiration rates of the semiarid Aneurolepidium chinense steppe and the Stipa krylovii steppe were both relatively high from mid-May to mid-September of each year and remained low during the rest of the year. The minimum value of soil respiration occurred in December or January and negative effluxes of CO2 appeared for several days during the non-growing season of individual years at the two sampling sites. A high annual variation was found in the two steppes with the coefficients of variance (CV) being over 94%, even high to 131%. The annual sums of soil CO2 efflux of the Aneurolepidium chinense steppe varied between 356.4 gC m?2 yr?1 and 408.8 gC m?2 yr?1, while those of the Stipa krylovii steppe in the three years were in the range of 110.6 gC m?2 yr?1 to 148.6 gC m?2 yr?1. The mean respiration rates of the Aneurolepidium chinense steppe were significantly higher than those of the Stipa krylovii steppe in different statistical periods with the exception of the non-growing season. About 59.9% and 80.6% of the soil respiration variations in both steppes for the whole sampling period were caused by the changes of temperature and soil water content. In the Aneurolepidium chinense steppe, the soil respiration rate has significant or extremely significant positive correlation (r = 0.58 ? 0.85, p < 0.05 or p < 0.01) with air temperature and ground temperature of the topsoil except in 2002; the unique contributions of temperature change to the soil respiration variation of the three years were 53.3%, 81.0% and 58.6%, respectively. But, for the Stipa krylovii steppe in the same time interval, the soil water content (especially that of the 10–20 cm layer) has a greater effect on the change of soil respiration, and the unique contributions of the change of the 10–20 cm soil water content to the variations of soil respiration in 2002 and 2003 were 60.0% and 54.3%, respectively. In 2004, in spite of the higher contribution of temperature than soil water content, the contribution of ground temperature at a depth of 10 cm was only 46.2%, much weaker than that of any single year in the Aneurolepidium chinense steppe.     

COMPARISONS OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES EXPERIENCING EXTRATROPICAL TRANSITION IN THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC BASED ON DIFFERENT DATASETS

The differences in the climatology of extratropical transition(ET) of western North Pacific tropical cyclones(TCs) were investigated in this study using the TCs best-track datasets of China Meteorological Administration(CMA),Japan Meteorological Agency(JMA) and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center(JTWC). The results show that the ET identification, ET completion time, and post-ET duration reported in the JTWC dataset are greatly different from those in CMA and JMA datasets during 2004-2010. However, the key differences between the CMA and JMA datasets from 1951 to 2010 are the ET identification and the post-ET duration, because of inconsistent objective ET criteria used in the centers. Further analysis indicates that annual ET percentage of CMA was lower than that of JMA, and exhibited an interannual decreasing trend, while that of JMA was an unchanged trend. The western North Pacific ET events occurred mainly during the period June to November. The latitude of ET occurrence shifted northward from February to August,followed by a southward shift. Most of ET events were observed between 35°N and 45°N. From a regional perspective,TCs tended to undergo ET in Japan and the ocean east to it. It is found that TCs which experienced the ET process at higher latitudes were generally more intense at the ET completion time. TCs completing the ET overland or offshore were weaker than those finishing the ET over the ocean. Most of the TCs weakened 24 h before the completion of ET.In contrast, 21%(27%) of the TCs showed an intensification process based on the CMA(JMA) dataset during the post-ET period. The results presented in this study indicate that consistent ET determination criteria are needed to reduce the uncertainty involved in ET identification among the centers.     

Applying single and two layer canopy models to derive conductances of a Scots pine plantation from micrometeorological measurements

Summary A single layer (Penman-Monteith) and a two layer (modified Shuttleworth-Wallace) evapotranspiration (ET) model are used alternatively to derive conductances related to the dominant fluxes of water vapor from a semi-closed Scots pine plantation. The derivations are based on micrometeorological measurements of above canopy energy flux densities and a simple resistance network. For a period of consecutive fine weather days, below canopy net radiation and below canopy ET were about 20 percent of the corresponding above canopy values. Resulting conductances for latent heat flux agreed well with porometric measurements of pines and understory scaled to canopy level. The shift from single to two layer modelling reduced the canopy conductance to pine conductance by the fraction of understory ET.However, characteristics of porometer results and micrometeorologically derived conductances were quite different: The porometer estimates of conductance were highly variable due to stomatal response to local environmental conditions or natural variability within the tree canopy and vegetation patches which characterized the forest understory. Micrometeorologically derived conductances integrate spatially resulting in relatively smooth and repetitive daily patterns that lack the information of small scale variability. This is seen as a favorable feature of micrometeorological derived conductances when used for the parameterization of atmospheric models for climate research as long as small scale bio-diversity is irrelevant.With 5 Figures     

The HartX-synthesis: An experimental approach to water and carbon exchange of a Scots pine plantation

Summary In May 1992 during the interdisciplinary measurement campaign HartX (Hartheim eXperiment), several independent estimates of stand water vapor flux were compared at a 12-m high Scots pine (Pinus silvestris) plantation on a flat fluvial terrace of the Rhine close to Freiburg, Germany. Weather during the HartX period was characterized by ten consecutive clear days with exceptionally high input of available energy for this time of year and with a slowly shifting diurnal pattern in atmospheric variables like vapor pressure deficit. Methods utilized to quantify components of stand water flux included porometry measurements on understory graminoid leaves and on pine needles and three different techniques for determining individual tree xylem sap flow. Micrometeorological methods included eddy covariance and eddy covariance energy balance techniques with six independent systems on two towers separated by 40 m. Additionally, Bowen ratio energy balance estimates of water flux were conducted and measurements of the gradients in water vapor, CO₂, and trace gases within and above the stand were carried out with an additional, portable 30 m high telescoping mast.Biologically-based estimates of overstory transpiration were obtained by up-scaling tree sap flow rates to stand level via cumulative sapwood area. Tree transpiration contributed between 2.2 and 2.6 mm/day to ET for a tree leaf area index (LAI) of 2.8. The pine stand had an understory dominated by sedge and grass species with overall average LAI of 1.5. Mechanistic canopy gas exchange models that quantify both water vapor and CO₂ exchange were applied to both understory and tree needle ecosystem compartments. Thus, the transpiration by graminoid species was estimated at approximately 20% of total stand ET. The modelled estimates for understory contribution to stand water flux compared well with micrometeorologically-based determinations. Maximum carbon gain was estimated from the canopy models at approximately 425 mmol/(m²day) for the tree needles and at 100 mmol/(m²day) for the understory. Carbon gain was suggested by the modelling analysis to remain relatively constant during the HartX period, while water use efficiency in carbon fixation increased with decreasing vapor pressure deficit. Biologically- and micrometeorologically-based estimates of stand water flux showed good general agreement with variation of up to 20% that reflects both errors due to the inherent assumptions associated with different methods as well as natural spatial variability in fluxes. The various methods support a reliable estimate of average ET from this homogeneous canopy during HartX of about 2.6 mm/day (a maximum of about 3.1 mm/day) with an insignificant decreasing trend in correlation with decreasing vapor pressure deficit and possibly soil moisture.Findings during HartX were embedded in local scale heterogeneity with greater roughness over the forest and much higher ET over the surrounding agricultural fields which results in weak but clearly existant circulation patterns. A variety of measurements were continued after the HartX campaign. They allow us to extend our findings for six months with changing environmental conditions, including shortage of soil moisture. Hydrological estimates of soil water extractions and micrometeorological estimates of ET by the one-propeller eddy covariance (OPEC) system were in very good agreement, supporting the use of this robust eddy covariance energy balance technique for long-term monitoring.With 5 Figures     

黑土区土壤水分含量对大豆产量构成因素的影响

本研究旨在分析黑土区（黑龙江）土壤有效水分贮存量对大豆产量构成因素的影响,以期为大豆生产防灾减灾提供科学依据。利用1994—2017年黑龙江省大豆主产区的发育期、土壤水分、产量结构资料分析了大豆不同发育阶段土壤有效水分贮存量的时空分布规律、基于土壤相对湿度指数（R_sm）的干旱等级划分规律及有效水分贮存量对大豆不同发育阶段产量结构各因素的影响。结果表明：1994—2017年研究区各发育阶段平均有效水分贮存量在14—18 mm之间变化,共发生干旱82站次,其中轻旱77站次,中旱5站次,没有发生重旱和特旱,其中开花—结荚期、结荚—鼓粒期发生干旱频次较高,且1994—2017年研究区域发生干旱的频次是逐年降低的。大豆的气象产量、株结实粒数、株籽粒重与不同发育期的各层次的土壤有效水分贮存量相关性不大;百粒重与三叶至开花期的20—50 cm土层、结荚—鼓粒期的0—20 cm土壤有效水分贮存量相关性较大;茎秆重与播种至出苗期的30—50 cm土壤有效水分贮存量呈显著正相关;播种至开花期土壤中的有效水分贮存量尤其是深层土壤在一定范围内越多,株荚数越多;空秕荚率与播种至出苗期的0—20 cm和30—40 cm、出苗至三叶期的30—40 cm土壤有效水分贮存量相关性较大。     

土壤干旱对作物生长过程和产量影响的研究进展

水分短缺是作物生长中最大的限制因子,土壤干旱胁迫使植物的长势、生理机制、激素水平等都会发生一系列变化。在干旱半干旱地区,土壤水分亏缺能明显抑制作物根系和地上部生长,显著降低作物的生物量、产量和收获指数。禾谷类作物小麦（Triticum aestivum）在灌浆期遇到水分胁迫时,会引起光合速率降低、灌浆时间缩短、灌浆速率下降、植株老化提前,但是它能增加营养组织到籽粒中非结构性碳水化合物的再代谢。土壤水分和植物激素共同调控作物的灌浆过程,当遇到土壤干旱时,作物叶片、花、籽粒发育过程中植物生长调节剂ABA浓度明显增加,且ABA、乙烯、ACC等的浓度随着干旱程度而变化。植物对干旱的适应性主要表现在植物生理、形态上的改变,比如植株结构、干物质积累、植物组织渗透势、气孔导度等的变化。土壤干旱不利于植物生长,但有利于胁迫临界点的产生,这就有可能利用土壤干旱条件下在灌浆较慢时诱导整个植株衰老和更好地进行碳代谢来提高籽粒产量,如果在作物灌浆后期适度控制土壤干旱可以增加籽粒产量和收获指数,有助于农业生产中的节水,这对于发展可持续农业是迫切需要的。     

基于碳水通量耦合原理改进Penman-Monteith蒸散发模型

陆地蒸散(ET)涵括地表和潮湿叶片的蒸发和植物的蒸散发,是陆地水循环的重要组成部分。Penman-Monteith方程是估算陆地蒸散的重要方法,方程中的叶片或冠层气孔导度是提高估算精度的关键因子。根据碳水循环的耦合原理,植物光合作用模型可用于估算叶片或冠层气孔导度。植物光合作用模型可分为三类:1)使用总冠层导度的大叶模型(BL),2)区别阴、阳叶冠层导度的双大叶模型(TBL),3)区别阴、阳叶叶片导度的双叶模型(TL)。与这三类光合作用模型相对应,衍生出基于不同导度计算方法的三种蒸散估算模型。三种蒸散模型之间的主要区别在于是否进行从叶片尺度到冠层尺度的气孔导度集成。这三种模型中,双叶模型使用叶片尺度的气孔导度,集成度最低。反之,大叶模型使用冠层尺度的气孔导度,集成度最高。由于在Penman-Monteith中,蒸腾和气孔导度之间的关系是非线性的,气孔导度的集合会导致负偏差。因此,与通量测量相比,大叶蒸散模型的估算偏差最大,而双叶蒸散模型的估算偏差最小。     

黄河源区蒸散发量时空变化趋势及突变分析

蒸散发量是流域水文过程的关键因子。由于缺乏区域面上实际蒸散发量的长期观测,很难得到长时间序列的蒸散发时空变化趋势。因此,本研究首先利用架设在黄河源若尔盖地区的涡动相关系统观测的2010年全年的蒸散发资料进行分析,对欧洲中心提供的ERA-interim和美国国家环境预报中心(NCEP)提供的地表变量再分析数据集进行了局地适用性评估,并依据再分析蒸散数据集,基于统计学方法分析了1979~2014年黄河源区蒸散发量的时空分布及变化特征。结果表明:(1)ERA-interim蒸散发再分析资料在黄河源区适用性较好,均方根误差为0.63,NCEP蒸散发再分析资料在4~7月、10~12月模拟值偏高,均方根误差为0.81。(2)进而利用ERA-interim蒸散发再分析资料,基于Mann Kendall方法及Sen斜率(Sen’s slope estimator)检验法,分析了黄河源区蒸散发量在1979~2014年期间的变化趋势。黄河源区蒸散发量总体上呈现北高南低的年变化趋势,北部兴海—共和—贵德地区增加最为迅速,年变化率在1.5~2.5 mm/a,西南部曲麻莱—治多—玉树地区减少最为明显,变化率为-1.0~-0.5 mm/a,东南部玛沁—玛曲—久治地区蒸散发量的变化在0.5~1.0 mm/a。(3)利用滑动t检验和SQMK(Sequential Mann Kendall)方法检测出发生突变的年份集中在20世纪80年代。     

淮河流域土壤湿度异常的时空分布特征及其与气候异常关系的初步研究

利用中国东部1990~2000年旬平均土壤湿度、降水和气温观测资料，通过对0~50 cm层次土壤湿度进行旋转主分量分析 (REOF)，重点分析了淮河流域土壤湿度的时空分布特征, 并初步研究了土壤湿度与前期、同期和后期不同时段降水与气温的关系。发现春季以30 cm为界，30 cm以上各层土壤湿度异常的第一旋转空间模态十分相似, 其大值中心主要位于淮河流域，而30 cm以下 (30~50 cm) 各层的第二旋转空间模态与之亦十分类似, 因此称该模态为“淮河型”，而夏季和秋季虽然该模态也很显著, 但特征不如春季突出。该模态在各层次土壤中具有明显的持续性特征，均存在40旬左右的显著周期；并与前期和同期降水（气温）呈显著正 (负) 相关关系，与约半年后的降水 (气温) 呈负 (正) 相关关系。     

Energy balance comparison of the Hartheim forest and an adjacent grassland site during the HartX experiment

Summary Energy balance components over a grassland surface were compared to those obtained above an adjacent, uniform Scots pine plantation during a five-day period of fine, sunny, spring weather. Soils were judged to contain ample water. Shortwave and total radiation flux densities were measured at both sites with pyranometers and total pyrradiometers. Soil heat flux densities were measured with heat flux plates at both sites, and additional storage changes were estimated for air and canopy at the forest site. The forest gained more shortwave energy than the grassland during daytime because of its lower albedo, but it lost more longwave radiation at night. The turbulent fluxes of sensible and latent energy were evaluated with the Bowen ratio energy balance (BREB) method at both sites. Temperature and humidity gradients were measured with fixed psychrometers at the grassland site, and with interchanging psychrometers at the forest site. Mean daily evapotranspiration (ET) averaged 2.26 mm over the five days for the Scots pine, or only 57 percent of the 3.94 mm measured at the grassland site. The mean Bowen ratios were 2.6 and 0.8, respectively.An error analysis was carried out for the BREB estimates of latent heat flux at the two sites. For a given error in latent heat flux and at a specified Bowen ratio the demands on accuracy of dry- and wet-bulb temperature gradients above the rough forest canopy was found to be 10 times higher than above the smoother grassland. If additionally the observed differences in transpiration rates between the two sites were taken into account, the precision for temperature gradient measurements above the slowly transpiring forest becomes fortyfold greater than required above the rapidly transpiring grass. At present, BREB precision requirements for gradients above rougher, drier canopies appear achievable only through use of specialized instrumentation, such as measurement systems that incorporate interchangeable psychrometers into their design.With 9 Figures     

华北地区极端干旱事件的变化特征

利用华北地区1961—2015年72个测站的月降水资料,采用一元线性回归、M-K非参数检验、小波变换、分形理论等方法,研究了华北地区极端干旱事件的变化特征。结果表明,华北地区极端干旱事件频次呈波动递增趋势,递增率为0.21次/10a。1981—1993年极端干旱事件频次低于平均值;1994—2015年的高于平均值,处于极端干旱期。极端干旱事件频次距平值年代际变化差异较大:1961—1980年极端干旱发生频次距平值正负交替;1981—1993年的为负值;1994—2015年的为正值。华北地区极端干旱事件频次在2003年发生了突变性增加,极端干旱事件频次Hurst指数值为0.55,具有长相关性,未来10年内华北地区极端干旱频次呈递增的发展趋势。     

An Amplified Signal of Climatic Change in Soil Temperatures during the Last Century at Irkutsk, Russia

Climatic changes at the Earth's surface propagate slowly downward into theground and modify the ambient ground thermal regime. However, causes of soiltemperature changes in the upper few meters are not well documented. One majorobstacle to understanding the linkage between the soil thermal regime andclimatic change is the lack of long-term observations of soil temperatures andrelated climatic variables. Such measurements were made throughout the formerSoviet Union with some records beginning at the end of the 19th century. Inthis paper, we use records from Irkutsk, Russia, to demonstrate how the soiltemperature responded to climatic changes over the last century. Both airtemperature and precipitation at Irkutsk increased from the late 1890s to the1990s. Changes in air temperature mainly occurred in winter, while changes inprecipitation happened mainly during summer. There was an anti-correlationbetween mean annual air temperature and annual total precipitation, i.e., more(less) precipitation during cold (warm) years. There were no significanttrends of changes in the first day of snow on the ground in autumn, but snowsteadily disappeared earlier in spring, resulting in a reduction of the snowcover duration. A grass-covered soil experiences seasonal freezing for morethan nine months each year and the long-term average maximum depth ofseasonally frozen soils was about 177 cm with a range from 91 cm to 260 cm.The relatively lower soil temperature at shallow depths appears to representthe so-called `thermal offset' in seasonally frozen soils. Changes in meanannual air temperature and soil temperature at 40 cm depth were about the samemagnitude (2.0 °C to 2.5 °C) over the common period of record, but thepatterns of change were substantially different. Mean annual air temperatureincreased slightly until the 1960s, while mean annual soil temperatureincreased steadily throughout the entire period. This leads to the conclusionthat changes in air temperature alone cannot explain the changes in soiltemperatures at this station. Soil temperature actually decreased duringsummer months by up to 4 °C, while air temperature increased slightly.This cooling in the soil may be explained by changes in rainfall and hencesoil moisture during summer due to the effect of a soil moisture feedbackmechanism. While air temperature increased about 4 °C to 6 °C duringwinter, soil temperature increased by up to 9 °C. An increase in snowfallduring early winter (October and November) and early snowmelt in spring mayplay a major role in the increase of soil temperatures through the effects ofinsulation and albedo changes. Due to its relatively higher thermalconductivity compared to unfrozen soils, seasonally frozen ground may enhancethe soil cooling, especially in autumn and winter when thermal gradient isnegative.