自组织映射神经网络(SOM)降尺度方法对江淮流域逐日降水量的模拟评估

利用1961~2002年ERA-40逐日再分析资料和江淮流域56个台站逐日观测降水量资料,引入基于自组织映射神经网络(Self-Organizing Maps,简称SOM)的统计降尺度方法,对江淮流域夏季(6~8月)逐日降水量进行统计建模与验证,以考察SOM对中国东部季风降水和极端降水的统计降尺度模拟能力。结果表明,SOM通过建立主要天气型与局地降水的条件转换关系,能够再现与观测一致的日降水量概率分布特征,所有台站基于概率分布函数的Brier评分(Brier Score)均近似为0,显著性评分(Significance Score)全部在0.8以上;模拟的多年平均降水日数、中雨日数、夏季总降水量、日降水强度、极端降水阈值和极端降水贡献率区域平均的偏差都低于11%;并且能够在一定程度上模拟出江淮流域夏季降水的时间变率。进一步将SOM降尺度模型应用到BCCCSM1.1(m)模式当前气候情景下,评估其对耦合模式模拟结果的改善能力。发现降尺度显著改善了模式对极端降水模拟偏弱的缺陷,对不同降水指数的模拟较BCC-CSM1.1(m)模式显著提高,降尺度后所有台站6个降水指数的相对误差百分率基本在20%以内,偏差比降尺度前减小了40%~60%;降尺度后6个降水指数气候场的空间相关系数提高到0.9,相对标准差均接近1.0,并且均方根误差在0.5以下。表明SOM降尺度方法显著提高日降水概率分布,特别是概率分布曲线尾部特征的模拟能力,极大改善了模式对极端降水场的模拟能力,为提高未来预估能力提供了基础。     

BCC-CSM2-MR全球气候模式对东亚地区降水和气温的模拟评估

全球气候模式BCC-CSM2-MR(Beijing Climate Center-Climate System Model version 2-Medium Resolution)由国家（北京）气候中心自主研发并参与了第六阶段国际耦合模式比较计划,该模式在BCC-CSM1.1m版本基础上对大气辐射传输、深对流过程及重力波等方面进行了优化,因此,该模式对东亚地区降水和气温模拟能力的改进亟需进一步评估。本文主要基于不同格点观测数据集与中国区域站点观测数据,系统对比分析BCC-CSM2-MR、BCC-CSM1.1m两个模式版本对东亚地区季节平均降水（气温）和日极端降水（气温）的模拟能力。结果表明：（1）相比BCC-CSM1.1m,BCC-CSM2-MR改进了对东亚大部分区域季节平均降水的模拟能力,尤其是青藏高原地区夏季平均降水,明显提高了对中国东南地区、朝鲜半岛及日本降水月际变化的模拟性能;（2）BCC-CSM2-MR对东亚地区季节平均气温模拟能力改进不明显,且对东亚大部分区域气温月际变化的模拟误差大于BCC-CSM1.1m;(3)对日极端降水（气温）,BCC-CSM2-MR的模拟能力优于B...     

百分位统计降尺度方法及在GCMs日降水订正中的应用

在格点观测的逐日降水量数据基础上,采用百分位统计降尺度方法对全球气候模式(GCM)输出的日降水量进行了订正处理。5种订正方案的比较结果表明,取12个百分位数进行日降水量订正是合理的。观测资料与3个GCMs订正前后全国平均年、季降水量空间分布以及主要流域平均年、月和日降水序列多年平均、变化趋势及概率密度的对比分析表明:(1)统计降尺度处理可在一定程度上降低GCMs模拟的降水量偏差,特别是中国中部、长江以南和东北部分地区,对德国马普研究所的海气耦合模式(MPI/ECHAM5)模拟的降水量订正效果最显著;(2)GCMs统计降尺度处理的降水量季节分布特征与观测更为接近,所有流域MPI/ECHAM5订正的降水量优于或接近直接输出结果;(3)与GCM直接输出的降水相比,部分流域经统计降尺度处理后降水量变化趋势与观测的一致性有所增加,但不明显;(4)当日降水量<30mm时,订正的降水量与观测的偏差明显减小;当日降水量>30mm时,部分流域由负偏差转为正偏差。由于GCMs结构和降尺度方法的局限性,在用于具体流域未来气候变化预估及气候变化影响评估时,应选择尽可能多的、模拟能力强的GCMs数据,以包含尽可能多的模拟气候情景。     

典型相关分析方法对21世纪江淮流域极端降水的预估试验

利用1961—1990年江淮流域逐日降水资料、NCEP/NCAR再分析资料和HadCM3 SRES A1B情景下模式预估资料,采用典型相关分析统计降尺度方法,评估降尺度模型对当前极端降水指数的模拟能力,并对21世纪中期和末期的极端降水变化进行预估。结果表明：通过降尺度能够有效改善HadCM3对区域气候特征的模拟能力,极端降水指数气候平均态相对误差降低了30%～100%,但降尺度结果仍然在冬季存在湿偏差、夏季存在干偏差;在SRES A1B排放情景下,该区域大部分站点的极端强降水事件将增多,强度增大,极端强降水指数的变化幅度高于平均降水指数,且夏季增幅高于冬季;冬季极端降水贡献率（R95t）在21世纪中期和末期的平均增幅分别为14%和25%,夏季则分别增加24%和32%。     

基于BP-CCA统计降尺度的中亚春季降水的多模式集合模拟与预估

利用中亚地区30个观测台站逐月降水资料及同期ERA-40再分析资料,结合8个CMIP5全球气候模式模拟与未来预估大尺度环流场,使用基于变形典型相关分析的统计降尺度方法（BP-CCA）建立降尺度模型,评估多个气候模式对当前气候下中亚地区春季降水的降尺度模拟能力,并对春季降水进行降尺度集合未来预估。结果表明,建立的降尺度模型能够很好地模拟出交叉检验期内春季降水的时间变化和空间结构：降尺度春季降水与相应观测序列的平均时间相关系数为0.35,最高为0.62,平均空间相关系数为0.87。气候模式对中亚春季降水的模拟能力通过降尺度方法得到了显著提高：8个模式降尺度后模拟的降水气候平均态相对误差绝对值降至0.2%—8%,相比降尺度前减小了10%—60%,模拟的降水量场与相应观测场的空间相关均超过0.77;对比降尺度前多模式集合结果,多模式降尺度集合模拟的相对误差绝对值由64%减小至4%,空间相关系数由0.47增大至0.81,标准化均方根误差降至0.59,且多模式降尺度集合结果优于大部分单个模式降尺度结果。多模式降尺度集合预估结果表明,在RCP4.5排放情景下,21世纪前期（2016—2035年）、中期（2046—2065年）和末期（2081—2100年）的全区平均降水变化率分别为-5.3%、3.0%和17.4%。21世纪前期中亚大部分地区降水呈减少趋势,降水呈增多趋势的站点主要分布在南部。21世纪中期整体降水变化率由减少变为增多趋势,21世纪末期中亚大部分台站降水增多较为明显。21世纪初期和末期可信度高的台站均主要位于中亚西部地区。     

21世纪前期长江中下游流域极端降水预估及不确定性分析

在全球变暖背景下,极端降水的频率、强度以及持续时间均在显著增加,尤其是对于气候变化敏感的长江中下游流域。由于模式本身、温室气体排放情景以及自然变率存在较大的不确定性,因此未来预估变化的不确定性一直备受关注。为了能够得到对于未来极端降水更为准确的预估结果,使用NEX-GDDP（NASA Earth Exchange Global Daily Downscaled Projections）提供的19个CMIP5降尺度高分辨率数据（0.25°×0.25°）,给出21世纪前期（2016—2035年）长江中下游流域极端降水的可能变化。根据长江中下游流域178个气象站1981—2005年的逐日降水量数据,计算了能够代表极端降水不同特征的指数,在评估模拟能力的基础上给出了21世纪前期RCP4.5情景下极端降水的变化。结果表明,降尺度结果对长江中下游流域极端降水有很好的模拟能力,除R90N外,所有模式模拟其余指数的空间结构与观测的相关系数均超过了0.6。其中所有模式模拟PRCPTOT和R10的相关系数均超过0.95。21世纪前期,长江中下游地区降水趋于极端化,尤其是在流域的西部地区。极端降水日数的变化在减少,表明对于极端降水的贡献主要来自于极端降水日的较大日降水量,而非极端降水日数。未来预估不确定性的大值区主要位于流域的南部地区,流域的西部地区不确定性较低,西部地区极端降水的增加应该受到更多的重视。      

转移累计概率分布(CDF-t)统计降尺度方法对湖南极端降水的模拟评估

为了提高湖南极端降水的模拟能力,利用转移累计概率分布(CDF-t)统计降尺度方法及基于第5次国际耦合模式比较计划(CMIP5)中的24个耦合模式数据,结合3个极端降水指数,从空间特征和年际变率两方面评估降尺度前后CMIP5模式对湖南极端降水的模拟能力。结果表明,较低空间分辨率的CM IP5气候模式无法细致反映区域极端降水变化特征,且由于各模式结果差异较大,多模式集合的模拟效果差。CDF-t统计降尺度通过建立大尺度变量的CDF与区域尺度相同变量的CDF之间的函数关系,对CMIP5模拟湖南极端降水变化特征有一定的改善能力。就空间结构而言,该方法对于模式模拟大雨日数(R10)和连续5天最大降水量(R5d)的空间结构能力都有很大改善,且模式之间表现出较高的一致性,尤其是R10改善效果最显著,与观测相比,湖南地区空间平均绝对误差达到2. 18天,较降尺度前绝对误差降低了45. 46%。就时间变率而言,该方法对于模式模拟R90P和R5d的时间变率能力都有很大改善,降尺度后IVS值分别由降尺度前的2. 2和1. 5降低至0. 3和0. 6。     

NEX-GDDP降尺度数据对中国极端降水指数模拟能力的评估

利用1986—2005年中国地面气象台站观测的格点化逐日降水数据(CN05.1)评估了NASA高分辨率降尺度逐日数据集NEX-GDDP中21个全球气候模式在0.25?(约25 km×25 km)分辨率下对中国极端降水的模拟能力.选取年最大日降水量(RX1D)、年最大5 d降水量(RX5D)、湿日总降水量(PRCPTOT...     

2003年夏季长江三角洲甚高分辨率区域气候模拟

利用区域气候模式WRF对2003年夏季长江三角洲极端区域气候进行高分辨率模拟,通过与站点观测降水、TRMM反演降水的对比分析表明,模式较合理地模拟出2003年夏季长江三角洲降水的主要特征,模拟的夏季各月平均降水量和强降水中心位置及降水强度都与实况较接近;模拟和观测的江淮流域、长江流域及浙江南部的区域平均逐日降水序列的相关系数较高;模拟出小雨、中雨和暴雨三类不同等级的降水概率特征,对暴雨概率分布的模拟结果最好;还模拟出长江三角洲梅雨期的多次中尺度强暴雨事件,模拟的暴雨发生时间和发生区域及雨带南移、北跳与实况都很接近,但降水量略有偏差。模式合理模拟出2003年夏季高温天气较多以及受多次强降水冷却效应引起长江以南、以北地区温差较大的区域气候特征,模拟的最低、最高气温的空间分布及极大值中心与观测都较接近,最低气温模拟结果更好;还非常好地模拟出了区域平均的逐日最高、最低气温的时间演变特征,比降水更接近观测,并具有更高的时间相关系数。      

广义线性统计降尺度方法模拟日降水量的应用研究

利用1960—2010年青藏高原23个台站和长江下游25个台站的日降水量观测资料及NCEP再分析资料,采用广义线性模型的统计降尺度方法模拟台站日降水量,并评估了广义线性模型对日降水量的模拟能力。在建模期(1960—2005年)广义线性模型对日降水量表现出良好的模拟能力,两区域模拟结果与观测值1月平均相关系数0.75左右,7月也均超过0.5。模拟结果大部分台站日降水偏大,但偏大的量值较小;模拟的无降水准确率较高,最高值在高原区域,1月平均达85.2%。检验期(2006—2010年)广义线性模型模拟的日降水与建模期具有较好的一致性。此外,对两区域代表站的分析显示,广义线性模型模拟降水极值和降水0值的效果较好,且较好地还原了主要降水过程。总之,广义线性模型对日降水量的降尺度效果良好,适合应用于气候领域的相关研究。     

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS DATA OF AIR–SEA TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AND ITS VARIATION ACROSS SOUTH CHINA SEA IN THE PAST 35 YEARS

Using the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set(ICOADS) and ERA-Interim data, spatial distributions of air-sea temperature difference(ASTD) in the South China Sea(SCS) for the past 35 years are compared,and variations of spatial and temporal distributions of ASTD in this region are addressed using empirical orthogonal function decomposition and wavelet analysis methods. The results indicate that both ICOADS and ERA-Interim data can reflect actual distribution characteristics of ASTD in the SCS, but values of ASTD from the ERA-Interim data are smaller than those of the ICOADS data in the same region. In addition, the ASTD characteristics from the ERA-Interim data are not obvious inshore. A seesaw-type, north-south distribution of ASTD is dominant in the SCS; i.e., a positive peak in the south is associated with a negative peak in the north in November, and a negative peak in the south is accompanied by a positive peak in the north during April and May. Interannual ASTD variations in summer or autumn are decreasing. There is a seesaw-type distribution of ASTD between Beibu Bay and most of the SCS in summer, and the center of large values is in the Nansha Islands area in autumn. The ASTD in the SCS has a strong quasi-3a oscillation period in all seasons, and a quasi-11 a period in winter and spring. The ASTD is positively correlated with the Nio3.4 index in summer and autumn but negatively correlated in spring and winter.     

CHARACTERISTICS AND TRENDS OF CLIMATIC EXTREMES IN CHINA DURING 1959–2014

The spatial and temporal variations of daily maximum temperature(Tmax), daily minimum temperature(Tmin), daily maximum precipitation(Pmax) and daily maximum wind speed(WSmax) were examined in China using Mann-Kendall test and linear regression method. The results indicated that for China as a whole, Tmax, Tmin and Pmax had significant increasing trends at rates of 0.15℃ per decade, 0.45℃ per decade and 0.58 mm per decade,respectively, while WSmax had decreased significantly at 1.18 m·s~(-1) per decade during 1959—2014. In all regions of China, Tmin increased and WSmax decreased significantly. Spatially, Tmax increased significantly at most of the stations in South China(SC), northwestern North China(NC), northeastern Northeast China(NEC), eastern Northwest China(NWC) and eastern Southwest China(SWC), and the increasing trends were significant in NC, SC, NWC and SWC on the regional average. Tmin increased significantly at most of the stations in China, with notable increase in NEC, northern and southeastern NC and northwestern and eastern NWC. Pmax showed no significant trend at most of the stations in China, and on the regional average it decreased significantly in NC but increased in SC, NWC and the mid-lower Yangtze River valley(YR). WSmax decreased significantly at the vast majority of stations in China, with remarkable decrease in northern NC, northern and central YR, central and southern SC and in parts of central NEC and western NWC. With global climate change and rapidly economic development, China has become more vulnerable to climatic extremes and meteorological disasters, so more strategies of mitigation and/or adaptation of climatic extremes,such as environmentally-friendly and low-cost energy production systems and the enhancement of engineering defense measures are necessary for government and social publics.     

IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC LOW-FREQUENCY OSCILLATION ON THE IMMIGRATION OF NILAPARVATA LUGENS(STL) IN HUNAN AND JIANGXI PROVINCES

Various features of the atmospheric environment affect the number of migratory insects, besides their initial population. However, little is known about the impact of atmospheric low-frequency oscillation(10 to 90 days) on insect migration. A case study was conducted to ascertain the influence of low-frequency atmospheric oscillation on the immigration of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens(Stl), in Hunan and Jiangxi provinces. The results showed the following:(1) The number of immigrating N. lugens from April to June of 2007 through 2016 mainly exhibited a periodic oscillation of 10 to 20 days.(2) The 10-20 d low-frequency number of immigrating N. lugens was significantly correlated with a low-frequency wind field and a geopotential height field at 850 h Pa.(3) During the peak phase of immigration, southwest or south winds served as a driving force and carried N. lugens populations northward, and when in the back of the trough and the front of the ridge, the downward airflow created a favorable condition for N. lugens to land in the study area. In conclusion, the northward migration of N. lugens was influenced by a low-frequency atmospheric circulation based on the analysis of dynamics. This study was the first research connecting atmospheric low-frequency oscillation to insect migration.     

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC CONDITIONS BEFORE THE OCCURRENCE OF TWO TYPES OF EL NIO EVENTS

The atmospheric and oceanic conditions before the onset of EP El Ni?o and CP El Ni?o in nearly 30 years are compared and analyzed by using 850 hPa wind, 20℃ isotherm depth, sea surface temperature and the Wheeler and Hendon index. The results are as follows: In the western equatorial Pacific, the occurrence of the anomalously strong westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Its intensity is far stronger than that of the CP El Ni?o. Two months before the El Ni?o, the anomaly westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o have extended to the eastern Pacific region, while the westerly wind anomaly of the CP El Ni?o can only extend to the west of the dateline three months before the El Ni?o and later stay there. Unlike the EP El Ni?o, the CP El Ni?o is always associated with easterly wind anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific before its onset. The thermocline depth anomaly of the EP El Ni?o can significantly move eastward and deepen. In addition, we also find that the evolution of thermocline is ahead of the development of the sea surface temperature for the EP El Ni?o. The strong MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o in the western and central Pacific is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Measured by the standard deviation of the zonal wind square, the intensity of MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o is significantly greater than that of the CP El Ni?o before the onset of El Ni?o.     

ANALYSIS OF “BIMODAL PATTERN” STORM ACTIVITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAY OF BENGAL

Storms that occur at the Bay of Bengal (BoB) are of a bimodal pattern, which is different from that of the other sea areas. By using the NCEP, SST and JTWC data, the causes of the bimodal pattern storm activity of the BoB are diagnosed and analyzed in this paper. The result shows that the seasonal variation of general atmosphere circulation in East Asia has a regulating and controlling impact on the BoB storm activity, and the “bimodal period” of the storm activity corresponds exactly to the seasonal conversion period of atmospheric circulation. The minor wind speed of shear spring and autumn contributed to the storm, which was a crucial factor for the generation and occurrence of the “bimodal pattern” storm activity in the BoB. The analysis on sea surface temperature (SST) shows that the SSTs of all the year around in the BoB area meet the conditions required for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). However, the SSTs in the central area of the bay are higher than that of the surrounding areas in spring and autumn, which facilitates the occurrence of a “two-peak” storm activity pattern. The genesis potential index (GPI) quantifies and reflects the environmental conditions for the generation of the BoB storms. For GPI, the intense low-level vortex disturbance in the troposphere and high-humidity atmosphere are the sufficient conditions for storms, while large maximum wind velocity of the ground vortex radius and small vertical wind shear are the necessary conditions of storms.     

LOW-FREQUENCY CIRCULATION AND EXTENDED-RANGE FORECAST IN CONNECTION WITH AUTUMN EXTREME HEAVY RAINFALL PROCESS IN HAINAN

Observed daily precipitation data from the National Meteorological Observatory in Hainan province and daily data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis-2 dataset from 1981 to 2014 are used to analyze the relationship between Hainan extreme heavy rainfall processes in autumn (referred to as EHRPs) and 10–30 d low-frequency circulation. Based on the key low-frequency signals and the NCEP Climate Forecast System Version 2 (CFSv2) model forecasting products, a dynamical-statistical method is established for the extended-range forecast of EHRPs. The results suggest that EHRPs have a close relationship with the 10–30 d low-frequency oscillation of 850 hPa zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north, and that they basically occur during the trough phase of the low-frequency oscillation of zonal wind. The latitudinal propagation of the low-frequency wave train in the middle-high latitudes and the meridional propagation of the low-frequency wave train along the coast of East Asia contribute to the ‘north high (cold), south low (warm)’ pattern near Hainan Island, which results in the zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north reaching its trough, consequently leading to EHRPs. Considering the link between low-frequency circulation and EHRPs, a low-frequency wave train index (LWTI) is defined and adopted to forecast EHRPs by using NCEP CFSv2 forecasting products. EHRPs are predicted to occur during peak phases of LWTI with value larger than 1 for three or more consecutive forecast days. Hindcast experiments for EHRPs in 2015–2016 indicate that EHRPs can be predicted 8–24 d in advance, with an average period of validity of 16.7 d.     

AN ATTRIBUTION ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION IN THE BEIJING–TIANJIN–HEBEI REGION UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

Based on the measurements obtained at 64 national meteorological stations in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region between 1970 and 2013, the potential evapotranspiration (ET0) in this region was estimated using the Penman–Monteith equation and its sensitivity to maximum temperature (Tmax), minimum temperature (Tmin), wind speed (Vw), net radiation (Rn) and water vapor pressure (Pwv) was analyzed, respectively. The results are shown as follows. (1) The climatic elements in the BTH region underwent significant changes in the study period. Vw and Rn decreased significantly, whereas Tmin, Tmax and Pwv increased considerably. (2) In the BTH region, ET0 also exhibited a significant decreasing trend, and the sensitivity of ET0 to the climatic elements exhibited seasonal characteristics. Of all the climatic elements, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv in the fall and winter and Rn in the spring and summer. On the annual scale, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv, followed by Rn, Vw, Tmax and Tmin. In addition, the sensitivity coefficient of ET0 with respect to Pwv had a negative value for all the areas, indicating that increases in Pwv can prevent ET0 from increasing. (3) The sensitivity of ET0 to Tmin and Tmax was significantly lower than its sensitivity to other climatic elements. However, increases in temperature can lead to changes in Pwv and Rn. The temperature should be considered the key intrinsic climatic element that has caused the "evaporation paradox" phenomenon in the BTH region.     

Could the Recent Taal Volcano Eruption Trigger an El Ni?o and Lead to Eurasian Warming?

正The Taal Volcano in Luzon is one of the most active and dangerous volcanoes of the Philippines. A recent eruption occurred on 12 January 2020(Fig. 1a), and this volcano is still active with the occurrence of volcanic earthquakes. The eruption has become a deep concern worldwide, not only for its damage on local society, but also for potential hazardous consequences on the Earth's climate and environment.     

Revisiting the Concentration Observations and Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Ammonia

正While China’s Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan on particulate matter since 2013 has reduced sulfate significantly, aerosol ammonium nitrate remains high in East China. As the high nitrate abundances are strongly linked with ammonia, reducing ammonia emissions is becoming increasingly important to improve the air quality of China. Although satellite data provide evidence of substantial increases in atmospheric ammonia concentrations over major agricultural regions, long-term surface observation of ammonia concentrations are sparse. In addition, there is still no consensus on