基于CloudSat资料的北上江淮气旋暴雪云系结构特征

2007年3月3-5日和2013年11月24-25日,受江淮气旋北上影响,我国北方大部地区遭遇罕见暴风雪天气,2次暴雪过程有很多相似之处.利用常规观测、CloudSat卫星云廓线雷达的探测资料和NECP/NCAR再分析资料,分析了这2次暴雪过程江淮气旋云系结构和微物理特征.结果表明：（1）北上江淮气旋的冷锋云系较窄,以深厚对流云为主,回波核心在2~7 km,其结构在气旋发展的不同阶段变化不大;（2）逗点头云系范围宽广,在气旋的不同发展阶段,结构和强度有显著差异.气旋初始锋面波动和锋面断裂阶段,逗点头云系有两个降水区：北部为由多个单体组成的大范围层状云区,强回波从地表向上伸展,上空有高空对流泡,建立了播撒云-供水云机制,有利于下部冰晶粒子长大;南部有对流云柱发展.逗点头西部的冷输送带云系主要集中在6 km以下,强度弱,冰粒子含量少;（3）气旋暖锋后弯阶段,干侵入加强,冷锋后部的无云区或少云区范围扩大,逗点头云系南北范围收缩、变窄,云系的高度、强度和含水量减弱,冷锋云系也减弱;（4）气旋冷锋云系和逗点头南部的对流云柱以降雨为主,位于高纬度陆地上的逗点头云系以降雪为主,当逗点头云系处于海上有对流不稳定发展,以降雨为主.冷锋云系北部和逗点头云系南部均有由层积云或高积云组成的低云,以毛毛雨为主.冷锋云系和逗点头云系北部100-200 km的范围为随高度和距离逐渐变薄的高层云,无降水对应.     

8.12桦南清晨局地突发短时冰雹过程分析

本文对2010年8月12日清晨桦南县发生的局地突发短时冰雹天气进行了天气成因分析,表明冷锋前强烈上升气流为冰雹云形成提供了动力条件,锋前新生对流云团发展形成冰雹云。利用雷达基本数据产品揭示了冰雹云形成发展、成熟和消散全过程的主要回波特征,并应用雷达产品对冰雹的识别及与人工识别进行对比,其产品比人工提前10分钟识别冰雹,具有很高的临近冰雹预警应用性能。     

中国东部层积云发展过程中云微物理特征的演变

基于2007—2010年的CloudSat卫星观测数据,以云层液态水路径为指标将层积云的发展过程划分为五个阶段,对比研究了中国东部降水与非降水层积云发展过程中云微物理特征和云微物理机制的演变,并分析了其海陆差异.研究表明:非降水层积云中,云滴增长主要通过凝结过程完成,但云滴的凝结增长有限,难以形成降水,在非降水层积云发展的旺盛阶段,云层中上部云滴发生较弱的碰并过程.降水层积云中云滴碰并增长活跃,当云层液态水路径小于500 g·m~(-2)时,云滴在从云顶下落至云底的过程中持续碰并,并在云底附近出现云水向雨水的转化;当降水层积云液态水路径超过500 g·m~(-2)时,云滴碰并增长主要发生在云层上部,在云层中部,云液态水含量、液态粒子数浓度和液态粒子有效半径达到最大,云水向雨水的转化最为活跃.层积云微物理特征的海陆差异主要是由海陆上空气溶胶浓度和云中上升气流强度不同导致的.在非降水层积云中下部,陆地丰富的气溶胶为云滴凝结增长提供了充足的云凝结核,因而云微物理量的量值在陆地上空更大,而在云层中上部,云滴凝结增长达到极限,海洋充足的水汽输送使云微物理量的量值在海洋上空更大.当降水层积云液态水路径大于500 g·m~(-2)时,陆地层积云中更强的上升气流使大量云滴在云层中上部累积滞留,云滴碰并增长活跃,云层中上部云微物理量的量值在陆地上空更大.     

强雷暴中正地闪发生的条件

为了进一步认识强雷暴中正地闪偏多的原因,本文利用三维雷暴云动力-电耦合数值模式,通过模拟一次强雷暴过程,讨论了正地闪频发需要的条件.结果表明,云闪的发生需要较强的上升气流,而正地闪的发生不仅需要更强的上升气流,还需要云低层存在强的下沉气流,即正地闪发生在强雷暴云成熟阶段后期,对应固态降水强度最大时段.此时,云内主上升气流区内的各电荷区被强上升气流抬升,短暂地呈现反三极性结构,非感应起电机制作用使大量的霰粒子带正电荷,形成了中部电荷密度较大、范围较深厚的正电荷区.而下沉气流区比上升气流区电荷结构更复杂,呈正、负交替的多层结构.由于雷暴云上部负电荷区中部分带负电荷的霰和雹粒子被下沉气流输送到低层,及低层区域感应起电机制的共同作用,使上升气流区外围的对流降水区中的霰和雹粒带上负电荷,在近地面形成一个较强的、范围较大的负电荷区.强雷暴云中下部存在的这个偶极性电荷结构为正地闪的发生提供了有利条件.正地闪发生阶段对应着上升气流、雹粒子体积和总闪的快速增强阶段.因此,强雷暴中正地闪的发生可作为雷暴强度及冰雹形成的一个指示因子.     

基于能量约束的两层模型中热盐环流的基本特性

机械能驱动并维持热盐环流的观点愈来愈得到广泛接受.刻画热盐环流最简单的概念模型是Stommel两箱模型,考虑实际海洋垂向的层化,于是出现了分层模型.在此,我们从能量观点出发,借助两层概念模型,研究了热型和盐型环流的基本特征,重点讨论了淡水通量和混合能对热盐环流的强度及多平衡态的影响.研究结果显示:淡水通量和混合能的改变除了可以导致环流强度发生变化,更重要的是,淡水通量的不断减少和混合能的不断增加都会导致稳定的盐型环流"突变"到稳定的热型环流,这一结果进一步发展了热盐环流的能量理论.     

关中平原第5层古土壤发育时的气候与土壤水环境研究

根据关中平原4个剖面第5层古土壤风化特征的研究得出, 该层古土壤风化剖面厚度大, 明显超出了土壤发育的厚度, 形成了厚2 m多的风化淋滤黄土层; 第5层古土壤之下的黏土胶膜、风化淋滤黄土层、Fe₂O₃, CaCO₃和元素Sr分布深度指示关中平原该层土壤发育时年平均降水量达到了900余毫米, 含水量高的土壤重力水带分布深度至少达到了4.2 m, 在每年4.2 m深度范围土层含水量一般都在20%以上, 4.2~5 m深度范围内土层含水量也较高, 当时土壤水分充足, 没有土壤干层形成, 适于森林植被发育. 该层土壤发育时的年平均降水量显著大于年土壤总蒸发量, 水量平衡为明显的正值, 大气降水能够正常补给地下水. 该层土壤发育的中、晚期土壤水具弱酸性特征. 关中平原第5层古土壤发育时为亚热带气候, 而且比亚热带北缘的气候更暖湿一些. 那时秦岭以南和以北均为亚热带气候, 当时秦岭失去了亚热带与温带气候分界线的作用, 夏季风活动强度大, 能频繁越过秦岭山脉, 并给该区带来了丰富的降水, 决定了当时土层含水量较高.     

一次北京大暴雨过程低空东南风气流形成机制的数值研究

2002年6月24~25日,北京门头沟附近发生了一次大暴雨过程.观测资料和数值模拟均发现,在暴雨发生前和发生过程中,北京地区边界层内出现了一支强盛的东南风气流.东南风气流沿太行山东坡爬升,触发了对流.为探讨这支低空东南风气流的形成原因,本文通过数值模拟和敏感性试验,对这支东南风气流的形成机制进行了研究.结果表明,这支低层东南风气流是一支冷湿的、伴有较强风速辐合的气流,主要是在天气尺度系统作用下生成的.东南风气流形成过程中,地表感热加热作用对其强度有加强作用.大暴雨开始后的潜热加热作用对这支东南风气流有正反馈作用,使气流的强度大大增强,因此,在降水开始后气流强度也增强,降水最强时低空急流的强度达最强.暴雨开始后,由于夜间地表降温造成山风效应,导致在北京西部山脚下出现偏北风.     

沿海地区一次多单体雷暴电荷结构时空演变

利用闪电放电辐射源三维时空分布测量,分析了山东低海拔地区一次多单体雷暴过程的电荷结构演变以及与回波强度的关系.结果表明对流云区电荷结构是典型的上正下负电偶极结构,且随着雷暴发展正负电荷层强度增大,高度抬升.负电荷区处在40 dBz以上的强回波区域中,正电荷层处在约40 dBz区域中.层状云区也有类似结构,只是强度弱,高度低.观测到的四层电荷结构是出现在对流区消散阶段,此时,由于云体不同部位的不同消散程度,电荷结构发生断裂,云体前部正负电荷区下沉,云体中部正负电荷区高度变化不大,但负电荷区域变薄,呈现出四层电荷结构.从本例结果说明,雷暴优势起电机制通常能形成电偶极或三极性结构,多极结构可能不是起电形成.本文还分析了一次负地闪传输过程,和宏观电荷结构很好吻合,说明利用三维定位系统观测,可以较好地描述雷暴宏观电荷结构.     

地表拖曳对斜压波地面锋生的影响

利用三维非静力中尺度数值模式MM5模拟了干湿大气条件中纬度典型斜压波及其锋面系统的生成与演变过程, 重点讨论地表拖曳对干、湿大气中地面锋结构、锋生过程的影响作用. 研究结果表明, 在干大气中, 地表拖曳力对地面锋锋生具有双向作用, 一方面是锋消作用, 主要体现在地表拖曳力减慢地面锋锋生、地面斜压波系统发展; 另一方面, 地表拖曳力导致强的非地转流形成, 从而延长了冷锋锋生过程维持时间, 有利于冷锋强度增大. 同时地表拖曳力可以造成边界层内锋面近乎垂直于地面, 导致锋前垂直运动增强, 这些结果进一步推广了谈哲敏和伍荣生的理论结果. 在湿大气中, 地表拖曳过程对锋面雨带分布有重要的影响作用, 地表拖曳力可减缓对流上 升, 从而导致地表能量的耗散减缓. 当大气低层湿度较小时, 对流不是很强, 地表拖曳力可减缓地表水汽、能量的迅速耗散, 且在锋后边界层中产生摩擦辐合上升区, 这些上升区可逐渐东移到冷锋前, 补偿了锋前上升带的强度, 有利于冷锋降水的维持. 当大气低层湿度场很强时, 对流发展比较旺盛, 此时地表拖曳对低层水汽与能量的束缚作用相对较弱, 相应地表拖曳对锋面及其降水系统影响较小.     

风垂直切变对中尺度地形对流降水影响的研究

针对长江中下游中尺度地形特点以及暴雨过程发生发展期间风垂直切变的主要观测特征,设计了一系列中尺度地形的三维理想数值试验,分析了干大气地形流和重力波特征,探讨了条件不稳定湿大气地形对流降水的模态分布,在此基础上研究了圆形、直线风垂直切变和切变厚度对中尺度地形对流降水强度和模态分布的影响.结果发现:在 F_r≈1的干大气条件下,气流遇到地形后分支、绕流和爬升现象同时存在,地形激发的重力波在水平和垂直方向上传播,其在迎风坡、背风坡、地形上游和下游的振幅不同,并组织出不同强度的垂直上升运动.在F_r > 1的条件不稳定湿大气下,地形对流降水主要存在三种模态,即迎风坡和背风坡准静止对流降水以及地形下游移动性对流降水,地形对流降水的形成与重力波在低层组织的上升运动密切相关.风垂直切变对地形对流降水的强度和模态分布有重要作用,其中圆形风垂直切变(风随高度旋转)不仅影响地形下游对流降水系统的移动方向,而且影响迎风坡和背风坡山脚处对流降水中心的分布和强度;直线风垂直切变(风随高度无旋转)主要影响地形对流降水的移动速度和强度.风随高度自下而上顺(逆)时针旋转,地形对流系统向下游传播时向右(左)偏移.风垂直切变主要通过影响地形重力波的结构和传播以及对流系统的形成、移动方向和速度,来影响地形对流降水的模态分布,其中对流层中低层的风垂直切变对地形对流降水强度和模态分布有重要影响.     

On the condensed water mass in rising air

Condensed water in a vertical column is related through continuity equations to the updraft speed, column depth, height of the condensation level, and strength of microphysical processes. When the ratio of updraft to characteristic particle fall speed is small, as in stratiform rain, the mass of precipitation in the steady state is proportional to the product of that ratio, column depth, and condensation function. When the ratio is only slightly above unity, two water content regimes are defined by continuity equations. The regime of large water content, an extension of the case described above, occurs when the condensation level is low and when there is rapid conversion of cloud to precipitation. Another regime characterized by a water mass about one-third as large (or less), and absence of precipitation at the ground beneath the updraft column, appears if the condensation level is high enough or cloud conversion slow enough. When the ratio is large, the total water content is usually much smaller than when updrafts and fall speeds are similar, and declines slowly toward a limiting value with increasing ratio. As updrafts intensify, precipitation is more limited near the top of the column, with increasing depth and amount of cloud beneath. In the limit of very fast updraft and weak cloud conversion process, the condensate profile is simply the profile of cloud in air risen from the condensation level without conversion of cloud to precipitation. These findings contrast substantially with those presented by Sulakvelidze,et al., who proposed that the water mass associated with strong updrafts increases with the square of the updraft speed. The difference in results is traced to its origins in different model assumptions.     

The dynamics and thermodynamics of precipitation loading

A one-dimensional, time-dependent numerical cloud model is used to analyze the factors in the dynamic and thermodynamic equations which lead to a steady-state or nonsteady-state solution for the cloud vertical motion, buoyancy, precipitation, and cloud water fields. ‘Bulk water’ microphysical techniques are used for the cloud, rain, and hail variables. An atmospheric sounding from a severe storm situation is used as initial and environmental conditions, yielding model updrafts of 40 m sec^?1 maximum and more than 10 m sec^?1 over the entire cloud region. ‘Early conversion’ of the cloud water to rain leads to loading of lower portions of the updraft by rain, the formation of appreciable amounts of hail by freezing of the supercooled rain, and subsequent loading of the middle and upper portions of the updraft so that the updraft erodes throughout the cloud depth and the cloud dissipates, yielding a vigorous rain shower. A delay in the conversion of the cloud water to rain results in a steady-state solution, no rain or hail falling through the updraft. A two-dimensional cloud simulation of this same case shows rain and hail in the upper cloud regions recycled in the two-dimensional flow into the updraft near cloud base and a breakdown of the updraft with resultant rainout (negligible hail reaching the ground). The breakdown of the updraft has profound effects on the temperature field within the cloud, causing the lapse rate to deviate from the steady-state condition and approach the initial environmental conditions. The results emphasize the fact that the local change in temperature (and other dependent variables as well) is not independent of the vertical velocity, in general. This has implications for the interpretation of measurements made within clouds.     

Representing the Sensitivity of Convective Cloud Systems to Tropospheric Humidity in General Circulation Models

Convective cloud variability on many times scales can be viewed as having three major components: a suppressed phase of shallow and congestus clouds, a disturbed phase of deep convective clouds, and a mature phase of transition to stratiform upper-level clouds. Cumulus parameterization development has focused primarily on the second phase until recently. Consequently, many parameterizations are not sufficiently sensitive to variations in tropospheric humidity. This shortcoming may affect global climate model simulations of climate sensitivity to external forcings, the continental diurnal cycle of clouds and precipitation, and intraseasonal precipitation variability. The lack of sensitivity can be traced in part to underestimated entrainment of environmental air into rising convective clouds and insufficient evaporation of rain into the environment. As a result, the parameterizations produce deep convection too easily while stabilizing the environment too quickly to allow the effects of convective mesoscale organization to occur. Recent versions of some models have increased their sensitivity to tropospheric humidity and improved some aspects of their variability, but a parameterization of mesoscale organization is still absent from most models. Evidence about the effect of these uncertainties on climate change projections suggests that climate modelers should make improved simulation of high and convective clouds as high a priority as better representations of low clouds.     

Volcanic eruption clouds and the thermal power output of explosive eruptions

The maximum height attained by a volcanic eruption cloud is principally determined by the convective buoyancy of the mixture of volcanic gas + entrained air + fine-sized pyroclasts within the cloud. The thermal energy supplied to convection processes within an eruption cloud is derived from the cooling of pyroclastic material and volcanic gases discharged by an explosive eruption. Observational data from six recent eruptions indicates that the maximum height attained by volcanic eruption clouds is positively correlated with the rate at which pyroclastic material is produced by an explosive eruption (correlation coefficient r = + 0.97). The ascent of industrial hot gas plumes is also governed by the thermal convection process. Empirical scaling relationships between plume height and thermal flux have been developed for industrial plumes. Applying these scaling relationships to volcanic eruption clouds suggests that the rate at which thermal energy is released into the atmosphere by an explosive eruption increases in an approximately linear manner as an eruption's pyroclastic production rate increases.     

EUREC<Superscript>4</Superscript>A: A Field Campaign to Elucidate the Couplings Between Clouds,Convection and Circulation

Trade-wind cumuli constitute the cloud type with the highest frequency of occurrence on Earth, and it has been shown that their sensitivity to changing environmental conditions will critically influence the magnitude and pace of future global warming. Research over the last decade has pointed out the importance of the interplay between clouds, convection and circulation in controling this sensitivity. Numerical models represent this interplay in diverse ways, which translates into different responses of trade-cumuli to climate perturbations. Climate models predict that the area covered by shallow cumuli at cloud base is very sensitive to changes in environmental conditions, while process models suggest the opposite. To understand and resolve this contradiction, we propose to organize a field campaign aimed at quantifying the physical properties of trade-cumuli (e.g., cloud fraction and water content) as a function of the large-scale environment. Beyond a better understanding of clouds-circulation coupling processes, the campaign will provide a reference data set that may be used as a benchmark for advancing the modelling and the satellite remote sensing of clouds and circulation. It will also be an opportunity for complementary investigations such as evaluating model convective parameterizations or studying the role of ocean mesoscale eddies in air–sea interactions and convective organization.     

The physics of precipitation in cumulus clouds

Summary Over the past several years, the University of Chicago has conducted a program of research into the physics and chemistry of cumulus cloud precipitation. From these measurements it has been possible to isolate the sublimation-coalescence mechanism (Bergeron process) from the condensation-coalescence mechanism and to estimate the relative role of each process in the formation of rain n cumulus clouds. It is found that size of cloud capable of raining is a strong function of geography, that the environment of the cloud is very important in determining the probability of rain and that liquid water content is one of the most important within-cloud parameters.An essential part of the research concerned cloud treatment. Definite, positive treatment effects were demonstrated for rain initiation through coalescence using water spray. No effects were detectable from dry ice seeding of subcooled clouds, although any such effects may have been obscured by sample size (27 cloud pairs).Text of paper presented before Physical Society and Royal Meteorological Society Joint Conference on Cloud Physics, London, England, Jan. 4–5, 1956. The research reported in this paper has been sponsored by the Geophysics Research. Directorate of the Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Air Research and Development Command under Contract Nos. AF 19 (604)-618 and AF 19 (604)-1388.     

Daytime precipitation identification scheme based on multiple cloud parameters retrieved from visible and infrared measurements

Visible and infrared (VIR) measurements and the retrieved cloud parameters are commonly used in precipitation identification algorithms, since the VIR observations from satellites, especially geostationary satellites, have high spatial and temporal resolutions. Combined measurements from visible/infrared scanner (VIRS) and precipitation radar (PR) aboard the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite are analyzed, and three cloud parameters, i.e., cloud optical thickness (COT), effective radius (Re), and brightness temperature of VIRS channel 4 (BT4), are particularly considered to characterize the cloud status. By associating the information from VIRS-derived cloud parameters with those from precipitation detected by PR, we propose a new method for discriminating precipitation in daytime called Precipitation Identification Scheme from Cloud Parameters information (PISCP). It is essentially a lookup table (LUT) approach that is deduced from the optimal equitable threat score (ETS) statistics within 3-dimensional space of the chosen cloud parameters. South and East China is selected as a typical area representing land surface, and the East China Sea and Yellow Sea is selected as typical oceanic area to assess the performance of the new scheme. It is proved that PISCP performs well in discriminating precipitation over both land and oceanic areas. Especially, over ocean, precipitating clouds (PCs) and non-precipitating clouds (N-PCs) are well distinguished by PISCP, with the probability of detection (POD) near 0.80, the probability of false detection (POFD) about 0.07, and the ETS higher than 0.43. The overall spatial distribution of PCs fraction estimated by PISCP is consistent with that by PR, implying that the precipitation data produced by PISCP have great potentials in relevant applications where radar data are unavailable.     

The retrieval of cloud microphysical properties using satellite measurements and an in situ database

By combining AVHRR data from the NOAA satellites with information from a database of in situ measurements, large-scale maps can be generated of the microphysical parameters most immediately significant for the modelling of global circulation and climate. From the satellite data, the clouds can be classified into cumuliform, stratiform and cirrus classes and then into further sub-classes by cloud top temperature. At the same time a database of in situ measurements made by research aircraft is classified into the same sub-classes and a statistical analysis is used to derive relationships between the sub-classes and the cloud microphysical properties. These two analyses are then linked to give estimates of the microphysical properties of the satellite observed clouds. Examples are given of the application of this technique to derive maps of the probability of occurrence of precipitating clouds and of precipitating water content derived from a case study within the International Cirrus Experiment (ICE) held in 1989 over the North Sea.