Hydrogeochemical and isotopic characteristics of the Ilica geothermal system (Erzurum,Turkey)

In this paper, the hydrochemical isotopic characteristics of samples collected from geothermal springs in the Ilica geothermal field, Eastern Anatolia of Turkey, are examined and described. Low-temperature geothermal system of Ilica (Erzurum, Turkey) located along the Eastern Anatolian fault zone was investigated for hydrogeochemical and isotopic characteristics. The study of ionic and isotopic contents shows that the thermal water of Ilica is mainly, locally fed by groundwater, which changes chemically and isotopically during its circulation within the major fault zone reaching depths. The thermal spring has a temperature of 29–39 °C, with electrical conductivity ranging from 4,000 to 7,510 µS/cm and the thermal water is of Na–HCO₃–Cl water type. The chemical geothermometers applied in the Ilica geothermal waters yielded a maximum reservoir temperature of 142 °C according to the silica geothermometers. The thermal waters are undersaturated with respect to gypsum, anhydrite and halite, and oversaturated with respect to dolomite. The dolomite mineral possibly caused scaling when obtaining the thermal waters in the study area. According to the enthalpy chloride-mixing model, cold water to the thermal water-mixing ratio is changing between 69.8 and 75 %. The δ¹⁸O–δ²H compositions obviously indicate meteoric origin of the waters. Thermal water springs derived from continental precipitation falling on to higher elevations in the study area. The δ¹³C ratio for dissolved inorganic carbonate in the waters lies between 4.63 and 6.48 ‰. In low-temperature waters carbon is considered as originating from volcanic (mantle) CO₂.     

北京城区地热田西北部地热地质特征

自2001年在北京大学成功打成地下热水井后,北京西部隆起区的地热勘探开发受到重视。通过对区域地质背景条件的介绍,根据地热井钻探揭露的地热地质成果,对研究区的热储构造条件、地热地质特征及地下热水地球化学特征进行了分析研究。结果表明,八宝山断裂的性质具有先逆断层后正断层的多期活动性特征;研究区蓟县系雾迷山组白云岩为鼻状背斜凸起型热储构造;深部热流主要沿着黄庄-高丽营断裂的上盘向上传导聚集;浅部古生界碳酸盐岩地层富集强径流冷地下水的作用使青白口系的地温梯度高于北京平原区,纵向地温场坡度较北京平原区大;临近深大断裂构造带导致地下热水具有放射性镭含量高的特征;地下热水的¹⁴C年龄特征反映城区地热田接受西部隆起区地下水的补给很少;地热井水头分布趋势反映雾迷山组白云岩热储地下热水受黄庄-高丽营断裂阻隔后由南向北方向径流。      

Magnetic susceptibility and VLF-R investigations for determining geothermal blowout contaminated area: a case study from Alaşehir (Manisa/Turkey)

Western Turkey is one of the most spectacular regions of widespread, active continental extension in the world. The most prominent structures of this region are E–W trending Gediz and Büyük Menderes Grabens. Geothermal activity around city of Manisa in Gediz Graben has been investigated by many researchers and many geothermal boreholes were drilled in order to produce electricity. In the middle of May 2012, a geothermal blowout occurred 150 m away from the deep drilling (depth 1,100 m), in Alkan village of Ala?ehir resort in city of Manisa. After that, four big blowouts took place at the same area and thermal water had been diverted to Alkan stream for almost 4 months. The boron (B) and Fe levels of thermal water are 87 and 11.2 ppm where the background B and Fe values of topsoil vary between 0.2–1.5 ppm and 3.08–5.63 ppm, respectively. The objective of this study was to utilize joint magnetic susceptibility and VLF-R investigations to determine possibly contaminated area with B, related to high Fe level on the topsoil and thermal water in the subterranean layers. It is observed that magnetic susceptibility values vary between 500 and 790 cgs (×10^?6) in the vicinity of blowouts and 150–340 cgs (×10^?6) at a distance of 50 m around, where the background average value is 20 cgs (×10^?6), by using the data collected at 346 stations. Besides, the VLF-R studies were carried out along 18 profiles at three different frequencies. Laterally constrained two-layer inversion was applied to each station; in addition to the inversion of all profiles for each frequency, all lines were stacked, 2-D resistivity maps were obtained, and the contaminated area was determined approximately as 35,000 m². The results show not only satisfactory agreement between magnetic susceptibility and VLF-R data, but also provide fast and valued interpretation of geochemical and geophysical properties of the geothermal contaminated area.     

Arsenic anomalies in shallow Venetian Plain (Northeast Italy) groundwater

A pilot area within the Venetian Plain was selected to assess the arsenic (As) contamination of groundwater. The area represents a typical residential, industrial and agricultural organization representative of most western countries, and is also devoid of lithologies with high or anomalous As content. Hydrogeological and chemical data have been collected, the latter spatialized by a geostatistical approach. The unconfined aquifer reservoir varies from a predominantly gravel composition in the north to a sandy and silt–clay composition further south, including peat layers. The hydrochemical features of the waters are rather homogeneous, featuring low mineral content and a Ca-bicarbonate signature. In contrast, the redox state is highly variable; oxidizing conditions are predominant in the northern and coarse parts of the aquifer, whereas reducing potentials prevail in the southern and silt–clay parts. Several well waters contain arsenic in excess of drinkable limits (=10 ppb), and most of these wells are located in the southern area. A large portion of the studied area has a high probability of containing non-potable water (up to 150 ppb As). Remarkably, As “hot spots” (As > 300 ppb, up to 431 ppb) were identified at the transition from gravel to silt–clay sediments. No industrial or agricultural source of As has been found.     

Br/Cl ratio,Zn and radon constraints on the origin and fate of geothermal fluids in the coastal region of southeastern China

Low-to-medium temperature geothermal fluids in the granite regions of southeastern China are an important renewable energy resource, but they are also a source of contamination containing highly toxic elements such as fluoride and arsenic. This study analyzed the origin of the geothermal fluids in a regional-scale hydrogeological unit in the city of Xiamen, China, based on isotope and hydrochemical analyses. The Br/Cl ratios suggested that the inland geothermal fluid is merely recharged by rainwater from the mountain edge, while the coastal geothermal fluid is originally recharged by the seawater and later mixed with rain-derived groundwater. The geothermal water featured high SiO₂ and detectable Zn concentrations. The former reflects the significant water–granite interaction along the flow path, and the latter indicates the active hydraulic connection between surface waters, shallow aquifers and deep geothermal fluids. High radon content was detected near the deep conductive fault adjacent to a geothermal well, demonstrating that the fault damage zone acts as a major conduit for upward transport of the deep geothermal fluid. As a result, the fault damage zones developed in the granite are necessary for the formation of geothermal water, which leads to the uneven distribution of geothermal water in the subsurface. High-temperature geothermal water can be found in those regions with fairly sparse fault damage zones. In contrast, in the region with high-density fault activities, the active communication between shallow cool water and deep geothermal fluids can decrease the water temperature.

     

Mixing of geothermal and non-geothermal fluids in shallow aquifers in the Germencik-Nazilli area,Büyük Menderes Basin (SW Turkey)

This study observes groundwater hydrochemical characteristics during mixing between geothermal and non-geothermal fluids in Germencik–Nazilli area in the Büyük Menderes Basin (SW Turkey). Hydrogeochemical features of 32 non-geothermal, geothermal and surface samples were studied. The mean temperatures of the geothermal reservoirs are calculated to be 150–240 °C in Germencik field, based on Na-K-Mg geothermometry. Hydrochemical characteristics of Germencik geothermal fluid differ from non-geothermal fluids, mainly Na-Cl-HCO₃-type geothermal fluid, while non-geothermal fluid is mostly Ca-Mg-HCO₃-SO₄ type. High contents of some minor elements in geothermal fluids are most likely sourced from prolonged water-rock interaction, reflecting the signals of flow paths and residence times. A mass-balance approach was used to calculate mixing ratios between geothermal and non-geothermal fluids based on B, Cl and Na concentrations. Germencik field is considerably characterised by rising geothermal fluids and overlying non-geothermal fluids. The amount of water stored in the Quaternary aquifer evolved from a deep thermal source is low in Germencik (.5–40% geothermal fluid in non-geothermal wells). Mixing between geothermal and non-geothermal fluids has been caused by groundwater utilisation practices and is increased close to active faults. Irrigation of the shallow groundwater composition is considered as influx of low-temperature geothermal fluid.     

Assessment of naturally occurring arsenic contamination in the groundwater of Sarkisla Plain (Sivas/Turkey)

High arsenic levels in groundwater of the aquifers, belonging to the Pliocene terrestrial layers and Quaternary alluvial sediments, have become a significant problem for the inhabitants living in Sarkisla (Turkey). The main objective of this study was to determine the origin and arsenic contamination mechanisms of the Sarkisla drinking water aquifer systems. The highest arsenic concentrations were found in Pliocene layers and alluvial sediments with concentrations ranging from 2.1 to 155 mg/kg. These rocks are the main aquifers in the study area, and most of the drinking groundwater demand is met by these aquifers. Groundwater from the Pliocene aquifer is mainly Ca-HCO₃ and Ca-SO₄ water type with high EC values reaching up to 3,270 μS/cm, which is due to the sulfate dissolution in some parts of the alluvial aquifer. Stable isotope values showed that the groundwater was of meteoric origin. Tritium values for the groundwater were between 8.31 and 14.06 TU, representing a fast circulation in the aquifer. Arsenic concentrations in the aquifers were between 0.5 and 345 μg/L. The highest arsenic concentrations detected in the Pliocene aquifer system reached up to 345 μg/L with an average value of 60.38 μg/L. The arsenic concentrations of the wells were high, while the springs had lower arsenic concentrations. These springs are located in the upper parts of the study area where the rocks are less weathered. The hydrogeochemical properties demonstrated that the water–rock interaction processes in sulfide-bearing rocks were responsible for the remarkably high groundwater arsenic contamination in the study area. In the study area, the arsenic levels determined in groundwater exceeded the levels recommended by the WHO. Therefore, it is suggested that this water should not be used for drinking purposes and new water sources should be investigated.     

The evolution of the Cappadocia Geothermal Province,Anatolia (Turkey): geochemical and geochronological evidence

Cappadocia Geothermal Province (CGP), central Turkey, consists of nine individual geothermal regions controlled by active regional fault systems. This paper examines the age dating of alteration minerals and the geochemistry (trace elements and isotopes) of the alteration minerals and geothermal waters, to assess the evolution of CGP in relation to regional tectonics. Ar–Ar age data of jarosite and alunite show that the host rocks were exposed to oxidizing conditions near the Earth’s surface at about 5.30 Ma. Based on the δ¹⁸O–δD relationhip, water samples had a high altitude meteoric origin. The δ³⁴S values of jarosite and alunite indicate that water samples from the southern part of the study area reached the surface after circulation through volcanic rocks, while northern samples had traveled to the surface after interacting with evaporates at greater depths. REY (rare earth elements and yttrium) diagrams of alteration minerals (especially illite, jarosite and alunite) from rock samples, taken from the same locations as the water samples, display a similar REY pattern to water samples. This suggests that thermal fluids, which reached the surface along a fault zone and caused the mineral alteration in the past, had similar chemical composition to the current geothermal water. The geothermal conceptual model, which defines a volcanically heated reservoir and cap rocks, suggests there are no structural drawbacks to the use of the CGP geothermal system as a resource. However, fluid is insufficient to drive the geothermal system as a result of scanty supply of meteoric water due to evaporation significantly exceeding rainfall.     

Geothermal potential evaluation and development prioritization based on geochemistry of geothermal waters from Kangding area,western Sichuan,China

Kangding geothermal area is located in the western Sichuan, belonging to southeastern margin of Tibetan Plateau. Similar to world-renowned south Tibetan and western Yunnan geothermal belt, western Sichuan has intensive surface thermal manifestations including boiling and hot springs. The emerging temperature of thermal waters ranges from 47 to 79 °C with total dissolved solids lying between 899 and 2550 mg/L. δ²H–δ¹⁸O isotopes indicate a meteoric source for the thermal waters and a significant positive oxygen-18 shift in the southern region. It is suggested that southern thermal waters experienced stronger water–rock interaction and are closer to thermodynamic equilibrium, which is also proved by the water type classification. The reservoir temperature calculated by empirical and theoretical chemical thermometry is 180–225 °C for the north and 225–310 °C for the south. Evidences of hydrogeochemistry, stable isotopes, geothermometry and radiocarbon dating indicate that southern region of Kangding area shows greater geothermal potential than the northern region. In addition, based on the hydrogeochemical modeling of mineral saturation, underlying problem of scaling is likely to occur in the study area. According to the results of reservoir temperature, south Kangding sub-district has greater potential in geothermal power generation and development than northern Kangding. Therefore, further exploration and drilling work should give priority to the south Kangding area.     

北京天竺地热田东坝凹陷南部地区地下热水富集的地热地质条件分析

以北京地区地热流体中温度和矿物质含量较高的东坝凹陷南部地区作为实例,在完整的地热钻孔及相关地质资料基础上,通过对研究区断裂构造、热储层、热储盖层、地温场、流体水化学特性和富水性等地热地质条件进行分析,研究造成该区地热流体中温度、矿物质含量升高的主要原因。研究表明：受太阳宫断裂北段、良乡—前门断裂和楼梓庄断裂的切割作用,东坝凹陷南部地区热储层下落近千米,形成了一个较为封闭的“黑箱子”区域。这种独特的地质结构导致东坝凹陷南部地区接受东南城区地热田侧向补给较少,长期处于较为封闭的还原环境;太阳宫断裂北段存在深部的热源通道,地层深部的高温热流顺断裂上涌在东坝凹陷南部地区的热储层富集,因此该区地热流体表现出温度高、矿物质含量高、富水性差的特征,该研究对我国今后地热资源的开发具有积极的借鉴意义。     

武汉西部蔡甸地区中深层地热资源主控因素分析

武汉西部蔡甸地区拥有丰富的地热资源,其热源为地球内部传导热,主要热储层为古生界碳酸盐岩。鉴于武汉中心城区各类地球物理勘查手段受限,充分利用前期江汉油田的石油勘探和水文资料勘探成果,结合2021年4月成功钻探的索河1地热井资料,分析后认为蔡甸地区储热储水构造主要为背斜构造,导热导水通道则主要为断裂;蔡甸地区地热资源主控因素为断裂和古生界碳酸盐岩溶储层,且岩溶储层埋深适中,具备很好的地热资源开发前景;蔡甸地区有利地热资源勘查目标是与深大断裂相伴的各类背斜构造。     

Geological characteristics and analysis of hydrothermal genesis in the Suijiang-1 well in Yunnan Province,China

The geothermal water hydrochemistry and isotopic characteristics of boreholes in the Suijiang-1 well in Yunnan Province were studied based on the actual drilling geology, regional geological structure and hydrogeological conditions. The analysis results show that the geothermal water is SO4-Ca?Mg type, the recharge elevation is 1 381-1 646 m, the recharge source is atmospheric precipitation, the geothermal reservoir temperature is 42-45 ℃, and the geothermal water is controlled by lithology and geological structure conditions of study area. Atmospheric precipitation enters the groundwater circulation system through the surface karst form of the Wujiaobao anticline, northwest-southeast tensile faults, fissures and karst depression, and geothermal water formed through the rising deep cycle water temperature, then blocked by the double rivers’ fault zone and drilling explosion.     

Geological characteristics and analysis of hydrothermal genesis in the Suijiang-1 well in Yunnan Province,China

The geothermal water hydrochemistry and isotopic characteristics of boreholes in the Suijiang-1 well in Yunnan Province were studied based on the actual drilling geology, regional geological structure and hydrogeological conditions. The analysis results show that the geothermal water is SO_4-Ca·Mg type, the recharge elevation is 1 381-1 646 m, the recharge source is atmospheric precipitation, the geothermal reservoir temperature is 42-45 ℃, and the geothermal water is controlled by lithology and geological structure conditions of study area. Atmospheric precipitation enters the groundwater circulation system through the surface karst form of the Wujiaobao anticline, northwest-southeast tensile faults, fissures and karst depression, and geothermal water formed through the rising deep cycle water temperature, then blocked by the double rivers' fault zone and drilling explosion.     

Hydrochemical characteristics and mixing behavior of thermal springs along the Bijiang River in the Lanping basin of China

The Lanping–Simao basin characterized by the occurrence of hydrothermal activities in the northern part of the basin is the largest depression basin in western Yunnan Province. Hot springs outcrop in the semi-drought red layers (TDS, 0.644–8.17 g/L). Mixing with shallow cold water in the flow system is the dominant hydrogeological process leading to the decrease in thermal water temperature and complex hydrochemical compositions with water types ranging from HCO₃–Ca·Mg to Cl–Na type. According to the silicon concentration and enthalpy evaluation, the geothermal reservoir temperatures are estimated between 118 and 204 °C, and the mixing ratio between cold and thermal groundwater is 0.76 on the average. The high concentrations of Na and Cl indicate that there is some well-mineralized cold water in the flow system circulating to the upward migration path accompanied with intense water–rock reactions in the fault developed basin. Ca and SO₄ originate from progressively longer flow path owing to the poor solubility of gypsum, anhydrite and Ca–montmorillonite. Hierarchical clustering and multivariate statistical methods recognized three hot springs groups and four parameters groups which classified the reservoir environment into two situations, one is in the high-pressure environment with intense degassing, and the other is in the lower pressure with weak minerals migration.     

川西康定老榆林高温地热地球物理特征与形成机制研究

川西地区地热资源丰富,康定地区由中谷至老榆林一线,发育有多个高温地热田。通过对川西地区重磁资料和地质构造背景的分析,总结川西地区地热的分布特征,重点应用宽频大地电磁测深、音频大地电磁测深剖面及钻井资料,对研究区不同深度和尺度的地热要素进行探讨。研究结果表明：大量地热点发育在断裂附近,呈现出明显的空间分布相关性。在鲜水河断裂带下方的部分熔融体为本区高温地热田提供了主要热源。老榆林地热田主要受南北向深大断裂的次级构造和与之交错的东西向断裂构造控制,断裂破碎带构成热储,是深部热水上涌的通道。本文探讨了川西康定地区多尺度地球物理结构,高温地热资源的形成和分布与多要素耦合密切相关,构建出本区三维的地热地质模型。川西康定地区具有良好的高温地热水形成条件,通过地热资源开发,可促进川西地区社会经济发展。     

定福庄地热试验井成井工艺研究

JR-121井位于北京市定福庄南里,开采蓟县系雾迷山组1600m以深热储层的岩溶裂隙水。该试验井施工使用GZ-2000型水源钻机,TBW-850/50型泥浆泵,钻探深度2202.98m。成井过程中,根据不同层段,采用不同成井工艺,在目的含水层的上覆非取水层段,采用分级下套管及水泥封闭的方法进行止水,泥浆与回旋方法钻进;在取水段,采用裸眼孔底钻铤加压、泥浆护壁与回旋钻进。洗井工艺上,采用酸化、液态CO2和空压机引喷相结合的联合洗井方法。使用此成井工艺,止水效果良好,达到了开发岩溶裂隙地热水的目的。     

The hydrochemical characteristics and its significance of geothermal water in both sides of large fault: Taking northern section of the Liaokao fault in north China as an example

Based on comparative analysis on hydrochemical characteristics of geothermal water in the north part of Liaokao fault, this research focuses on studying the indicative significance of hydrochemical characteristics for the formation of geothermal water. The result shows that: (1) There is no obvious hydraulic connection between the karst geothermal water (occurred in the east part of the Liaokao fault) and the sandstone geothermal water (occurred in the west part of Liaokao fault). (2) In a close hydrological environment, caused by tectonic activities, geothermal water remains longer time in reservoir, hence the water-rock interaction is more complete, with high degree of concentrations, whereas the renewable capacity of the water is weaker. (3) There is no high temperature mantle source fluid mixed in the geothermal water. Karst geothermal water occurred deep circulatory convection along Liaokao fault and its secondary fault, therefore there is deep crust source fluid added into the geothermal water, closer to the Liaokao fault, the greater affected by the deep crust fluid. However, sandstone geothermal water has weak deep circulatory convection.     

银北平原浅层高砷地下水砷富集水化学特征研究

宁夏银川平原是继河套平原之后,在黄河流域发现的又一个高砷地下水分布区.为了总结其高砷地下水的水化学特征,并探索水化学因素对地下水砷释放和富集的影响机制,本文以银川平原北部（银北平原）作为典型研究区,采取野外水文地质调查、水样采集与测试、砷与水化学组分散点图相关分析及水文地球化学方法进行了综合研究.结果表明,银北平原地下水砷含量在0.2~177 μg/L之间;高砷地下水（大于50 μg/L） pH值多在7.5~8.5,水化学类型主要为HCO3-Na·Ca、Cl·HCO₃-Na及Cl·HCO₃-Na·Ca型,E_h多在-200~-100 mV.银北平原砷含量较高的地下水中COD、NH₄⁺、HCO3^-含量相应也较高,而NO3^-和SO₄^2-含量较低.高砷富有机质的冲-湖积含水层经过长期演化,形成偏碱性的中强还原性地下水环境和特殊的水化学特征,也具备极大的砷释放能力.较高的pH导致砷从铁锰氧化物或氢氧化物等水合物或黏土矿物表面解吸.其次部分铁锰氧化物在高pH、低E_h条件下可被还原为低价态可溶性铁锰,从而使与其结合的砷也得以释放进入地下水中.此外重碳酸根与砷酸根、亚砷酸根的竞争吸附行为促使含水层砷的解吸.     

Properties of geothermal resources in Kebilli region, Southwestern Tunisia

The Kebilli region is located in the Southwestern part of Tunisia, and is characterized by the presence of deep and shallow geothermal systems (continental intercalary and complex terminal). Chemical and isotopic contents are used to classify the type and determine the origin of thermal water. An evaluation of reservoir temperature and a possible geothermal fluid mixing are also carried out. Both continental intercalary-deep aquifer and complex terminal-shallow aquifer are of Na–(Ca)–Cl–(SO₄) mixed water type. The use of different geothermometers and the computation of saturation indexes for different solid phases suggests that the thermal reservoir temperature of the continental intercalary is between 92 and 105 °C, while the fluid temperature from the shallow complex terminal aquifer ranges from 50 to 75 °C. Also, the isotopic data indicates the old origin of all groundwater of Southwestern Tunisia. Mixing effects characterizing the continental intercalary and the complex terminal aquifers were identified using δ²H and δ¹⁸O relationship. It appears that the upward movement of thermal water from the deep aquifer to shallow ones is probably due to the abundant fractures in the research area.     

广安市铜锣山背斜三叠纪岩溶热储结构特征及热水成因研究

为探讨广安市铜锣山背斜三叠纪岩溶热储特征、地热水水化学与同位素组成、热储温度及地热水循环机理,采用地热钻探、水化学与同位素取样测试、热水溶质组分图解分析等手段和方法,开展了地热水成因的研究工作。结果表明:研究区三叠纪碳酸盐岩热储结构相对完整,热储盖层、热储层和热储下部隔水层形成独立的地热水文地质单元。岩溶地热水水化学类型主要为SO₄-Ca·Mg和SO₄-Ca型,富含F、Sr、Li、B和SiO₂物质,其水源补给为大气降水,补给区位于铜锣山以北的大巴山一带,深部地热水补给高程大于1 100 m,补给区年均温度为9 ℃。热储温度为56~76 ℃,热水循环深度为2 013~3 030 m。地热水在循环过程中,主要发生碳酸盐岩和蒸发岩溶解、冷热水混合过程,且冷水混入比例大于80%。结合区域地热地质条件,构建了研究区地热水成因概念模型。