The application of cathodoluminescence to interpreting the diagenesis of an ancient calcrete profile

A laterally extensive calcrete profile has been identified in the Late Asbian (Lower Carboniferous) shallow marine shelf limestones of the Llangollen area, North Wales. The upper surface of the profile is defined by a laterally discontinuous palaeokarstic surface and by laminated calcareous crusts which developed within the underlying limestone. The profile contains a unique series of early pore-filling vadose cements which only occur down to 1 m below the palaeokarstic surface. Cathodoluminescence reveals that these cements pre-date the late pore-filling meteoric phreatic cements which occur throughout local Asbian lithologies. A spar cement stratigraphy has been established for the calcrete profile. Subaerial vadose cements comprise two generations of non-luminescent cement, followed by a brightly luminescent generation which occasionally shows an acicular habit. This needle-fibre calcite represents the final stage of vadose cementation. Precipitation of vadose cements was contemporary with subaerial alteration and micritization of the limestone. Textures, visible only with cathodoluminescence, provide evidence of recurrent periods of fabric dissolution. The most extensive phase of dissolution occurred immediately after the precipitation of the non-luminescent subaerial vadose cements. Several different textures have been recorded, each reflecting the morphology of a partially dissolved substrate. Dissolution textures are generally confined to the walls of the larger pores and to early brecciation fractures. These probably acted as fluid pathways in the calcrete during early subaerial diagenesis. Much of the non-marine micrite in the calcrete profile appears as needle-fibre calcite under cathodoluminescence. This acicular calcite was probably formed in response to localized supersaturation of meteoric pore fluids caused by periods of near-surface evaporation. Since needle-fibre luminescence is strongly variable, these ambient conditions are not believed to have directly controlled the activator ion concentrations of cementing pore waters. Needle-fibre calcite is considered to be a cement precipitate which has almost completely recrystallized to micrite, probably during the late stages of subaerial diagenesis. Two generations of subaerial micrite which define a ‘micrite stratigraphy’, have been distinguished under cathodoluminescence. Reconstructing the diagenetic history of this ancient calcrete profile has revealed that subaerial alteration was multistaged, with many diagenetic processes acting simultaneously during a single phase of emergence.     

Diagenetic development of a Precambrian limestone as interpreted from a modern analogue

A strong correlation in the geometry and mineralogy of two cement generations of a Quaternary with a Precambrian calcarenite enables us to reconstruct the diagenetic history of the Precambrian limestone. Both calcarenites contain two cement generations (A and B) of which A consists of dolomite, B of calcite. The following diagenetic stages can be recognized: after deposition of the allochems in a shallow marine environment, cementation in the intertidal zone with magnesian calcite (cement A) led to the formation of beachrock (Stage 1). By lowering of the sea level, the beach rock was shifted into the supratidal zone, but still remained under the predominant influence of the sea water (breakers, spray). During longer periods of aridity, the magnesian calcite of cement A and of the allochems was transformed into dolomite by brines derived from sea water with very high Mg/Ca ratio (> 15), whereas aragonite and calcite remained unaffected. After further lowering of the sea, an increasing influence of meteoric water caused the wet transformation of aragonitic allochems to sparry calcite and to the precipitation of sparry calcitic cement B.     

Submarine and vadose cements in Pleistocene Bermuda reef rock

Well-rounded pebbles and cobbles of reef rock, which in bio- and lithofacies closely resembles the Recent algal cup reefs, occur in the basal conglomerate of the Pleistocene Devonshire Formation cropping out along Grape Bay on the south shore of Bermuda. The framebuilders of this rock include coralline red algae, vermetid gastropods, and barnacles. Study by petrographic microscope, electron microprobe, and SEM revealed aragonite-needle and spherulitic cements, high-Mg calcite micrite and palisade cements including calcified algal filaments. Two or three generations of these may occur in a given pore. By analogy with the Recent cup-reef material, on the basis of their composition (high strontium content of aragonite, high magnesium content of calcite) and of circumstantial evidence, these are considered submarine cements.In addition, a vadose blocky low-Mg calcite cement occurs, which never precedes any, but frequently succeedes one, two, or three of the above cements. Its fabrics vary: it may exhibit an increase in crystal size toward the center or not, it may or may not be bounded by the meniscus outline characteristic of the vadose diagenetic environment. The limitation of cement precipitation by a meniscus gives rise to a large diversity of forms determined by respective combinations of solution supply, permeability of the micro-environment, and substrate morphology. To illustrate the diversity, the meniscus cement is shown in relation to sediment particles, aragonite-needle cement, and calcified filaments.From the blocky low-Mg cement, selective neomorphism extends into some aragonitic gastropod shells; it is controlled, in part, by original shell structure. The resulting low-Mg calcite mosaic is characterized by relic structures and plane crystalline boundaries. Aragonite needles between blocky calcite cement and neomorphic calcite were not affected by the process of mineralogic alteration.This study shows that cements recognized earlier in Recent Bermuda cup reefs can be traced into the past and that additions to the diagenetic sequence can be distinguished. Knowledge of these features and their sequences should help decipher the diagenetic history of other fossil reefs.     

云南施甸铺门前组灰岩的微相特征及其环境意义

<正> 保山地块位于怒江和澜沧江断裂带之间,西为西缅地块及怒江—龙陵—瑞丽缝合带,东为昌宁—双江缝合带,海进自泥盆纪开始,早石炭世发生海退,下石炭统香山组及铺门前组碳酸盐沉积仅局限分布于由保山—施甸呈袋形向南延伸的区域内(图1)。沉积间断发生于早石炭世末、晚石炭世初之间。而后,海进扩大,上石炭统丁家寨组覆于铺门前组灰岩之上。     

Calcareous crust (caliche) profiles and early subaerial exposure of Carboniferous carbonates, northeastern Kentucky

Sequences of laminated limestones found within thin Carboniferous carbonate strata of northeastern Kentucky were studied to determine their origin and palaeo-environmental significance. These laminated zones are strikingly similar to Holocene and Pleistocene surficial calcareous crusts (caliche) profiles that occur in various parts of the world. Carboniferous laminated carbonates are associated with shallow marine carbonate units, palaeokarst, and overlying palaeosol zones. A typical laminated profile ranges in thickness from 1 to 2 m and contains brecciated, light olive-grey to brown micrite that lacks distinctive bedding. Structures and textures common in most profiles include: (1) calcareous and silicious laminae (laminae form diffuse, alternating light and dark bands that generally parallel bedding but often fill fractures and vugs within the rocks); (2) particles (allochems, and micrite and microspar fragments) coated by brown microcrystalline calcite; (3) brecciated texture; (4) circular to elliptical fossil moulds (occur in sinuous patterns and fill fractures within the rocks); (5) large and small scale fracture patterns. Subaerial weathering and vadose diagenesis of carbonate mud banks or islands is suggested as a mechanism for the formation of these Carboniferous calcareous crust profiles. These ‘crusts’ formed by a combination of solution (karsting), brecciation, and soil development that transformed an exposed marine biomicrite (‘host’ rock) into a porous subsoil rubble. Laminated ‘crusts’ and coated particles developed as the result of dissolution and reprecipitation of CaCO₃ and SiO₃ from the soil and carbonate bedrock. Carboniferous laminated carbonates in northeastern Kentucky are often referred to as ‘algal limestones’ because of their superficial similarity to some modern and ancient algal structures. This study, however, reveals numerous characteristics that can only be explained by diagenesis in a subaerial environment.     

海南岛全新世海滩岩的胶结作用与成岩环境的关系

我国海南岛及南海诸岛沿岸,广泛发育海滩岩。1980年我队赴海南岛考察现代沉积时,对海滩岩的分布、岩性特征及其与周围环境的关系进行了观察和采样。样品采自崖县鹿回头三亚湾水尾岭海蚀崖、西洲岛、小东海、东瑁岛、西瑁岛、天涯海角,乐东县莺歌海,文昌县渔业等地(图1)。有关的地质、地貌及岩性特征等,已有许多描述,对海滩岩的岩石学及成岩作用也有许多研究。本文侧重探讨海滩岩的胶结作用及与成岩环境的关系。     

巴布亚新几内亚合恩半岛晚第四纪上升珊瑚礁造礁珊瑚的成岩历史

更新世以来,剧烈的构造运动已将巴布亚新几内亚合恩半岛东北海岸的晚第四纪珊瑚礁阶地抬升上千米.阶地中造礁珊瑚的成岩变化和成岩产物的组构特征反映了该礁的成岩历史,充分体现该区快速构造上升的影响.海水潜流带和淡水渗流带为上升礁的主要成岩环境.生物钻孔、生物碎屑填隙、珊瑚文石针粗化、珊瑚骨骼的溶解和新生变形转化,以及其不同矿物成分和组构的种种胶结物的胶结作用是造礁珊瑚经历的主要成岩作用.地球化学资料表明其成岩变化发生于开放的化学体系之中.     

Diagenetic model of carbonate rocks of Guri Member of Mishan Formation (Lower to Middle Miocene) SE Zagros basin,Iran

In order to understand the post-depositional history of carbonate rocks of Guri Member (Lower to Middle Miocene), three stratigraphic sections were selected in north Bandar-Abbas in southeast of Iran. Sampling was carried out, analyzed for selective parameters such as oxygen and carbon isotopic compositions (δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C) and interpreted in the present study. We recognized several diagenetic processes including micritization, cementation, neomorphism, compaction, dissolution, silicification, dolomitization, fracturing and vein filling. Some of the diagenetic processes occurred at different conditions, so in order to achieve precise interpretation, samples from different carbonate components such as, micrite, fracture cement, solution pore cement, intergranular cement, and some biotic allochems were analyzed. In this study micrite samples were subdivided into two groups including micro-spary and micrite. They were recognized under Cathodoluminescence microscope. In addition, micrite samples were classified into five groups based on their depositional environments: supratidal, lagoon, coral bar, open sea, and open basin. There were minor changes in stable isotope ratios based on the sedimentary environments, stratigraphy successions, and micro-spary or micrite properties. In this study, similar calcite cements in petrography studies were differentiated by stable isotope data. Those calcite cements have formed in different diagenetic environments such as meteoric and burial cements. Paragenetic sequence of carbonate rocks were interpreted by integration of petrographic and isotopic studies. We have reconstructed diagenetic models of Guri Member into four stages including marine, meteoric, burial, and uplifting.     

西沙群岛现代海滩岩岩石学初见

引言我国美丽富饶的西沙群岛位于海南岛东南180海里南海西北部台阶式大陆坡的西沙台阶之上,由近40个岛洲礁滩组成。其中岛屿部分,除高尖石是由火山岩构成的以外,其余均为珊瑚礁岛屿。     

东营凹陷古近系湖相细粒混积岩沉积成岩特征

东营凹陷古近系湖相细粒混合沉积岩相类型、沉积环境和成岩演化等方面有待深入研究,利用岩心观察、薄片、X衍射和碳氧同位素等分析手段,明确了细粒混积岩相类型和沉积成岩特征.研究认为:岩石矿物组分和古生物含量的纵向变化较好地反映了沉积环境的变化和混合沉积成因过程,可作为细粒沉积层序四级界面识别标志.泥晶和亮晶方解石经历过显著的碳氧同位素分馏,证实了混积岩中泥晶方解石主要隶属于与甲烷细菌活动生成生物气有关的碳酸盐,透镜状和纹层状亮晶方解石纹层源自脉体方解石充填微裂缝,微裂缝和方解石脉集中形成于早期次干气-生油阶段.阐述了从生烃增压、微裂缝形成、有机质热演化排出有机酸、溶蚀泥晶方解石、方解石重结晶和脉体形成,直至影响临近砂体胶结作用的整个同生演化过程,对中深层页岩油气成藏研究具有重要指导意义.      

Micritization of crinoids by diagenetic dissolution

Bands within the Chalk of Kansas made up of masses of Uintacrinus socialis show an unusual preservation of crinoid ossicles: in contrast to their normal preservation in full relief as single large calcite crystals the ossicles are compressed and transformed to micrite. The micrite originated by a process different from the well-known micritization by algal and fungal borings and subsequent cementation of the borings: it is the outcome of partial dissolution. Dissolution proceeded inside the sediment and preferentially attacked the echinoderms as the most soluble calcareous component of the chalk sediment. Later, the remains of the Uintacrinus crystals preferentially attracted syntaxial cement so that the layer changed to a hard band of limestone within the soft chalk. In addition to a second process of micritization the preservation of Uintacrinus demonstrates (1) that the magnesium content of magnesian calcites survives the earliest stages of diagenesis within chalk, and (2) that a diagenetic comminution of large crystals (in an optical sense) to smaller ones is possible. Provided the ossicles of echinoderms are true single crystals (the knowledge in this field is summarized), this is an example of the often discussed ‘crystal diminution’.     

Diagenesis of Cretaceous limestones in the Edwards aquifer system of south-central Texas: A scanning electron microscope study

Diagenesis in shallow cores from the Lower Cretaceous Edwards Limestone was investigated in thin sections and with the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The SEM is a particularly useful tool in the study of diagenesis in porous fine-grained carbonate rocks because of its good resolution and depth of field.The Edwards Group was deposited in shallow-marine environments and underwent normal early diagenesis. Dolomite and evaporite minerals such as gypsum formed penecontemporaneously in some tidal-flat sediments. Slightly later, when the carbonate sediments were flushed by fresh water, carbonate mud recrystallized to micrite and aragonite allochems altered to calcite or were leached. Some cementation by calcite occurred in a fresh-water phreatic environment.The Edwards Limestone was divided into two zones by Miocene faulting along the Balcones Fault Zone. On the upthrown side of the fault a circulating fresh-water aquifer developed, whereas relatively stagnant brackish water remained present on the down-thrown side. Differences in the chemistry of the interstitial fluids in these zones resulted in different types of diagenesis. The presence of fresh water caused extensive oxidation, solution along fractures, recrystallization of micrite to coarse microspar and pseudospar, precipitation of equant sparry-calcite crystals in a variety of shapes and sizes, and extensive dedolomitization. The dedolomitization is thought to have been caused by the high Ca/Mg ratio of the circulating fresh water in a shallow subsurface environment.In the brackish-water zone, textures and fabrics related to deposition or early diagenesis, such as primary porosity, unoxidized organic material, framboidal pyrite, and evaporite minerals have been preserved. Some precipitation of authigenic dolomite, celestite, and kaolinite occurred in the brackish-water zone. In contrast to the fresh-water zone, precipitation of coarse calcite spar, dedolomitization, and recrystallization of micrite to microspar occurred only rarely in the brackish-water zone.     

贵州紫云上石炭统叶状藻礁灰岩的成岩作用

贵州紫云县猴场镇扁平村的上石炭统中的叶状藻礁及其周边灰岩中发育强烈的成岩作用和胶结物,这些胶结物在猴场研究区内是显著的和有代表性的。通过观察、分析野外露头、光片、薄片、薄片的阴极发光和染色,来研究礁体岩石的成岩作用,确定了成岩作用序列、成岩环境、成岩阶段。成岩作用类型主要有泥晶化、溶蚀、胶结、新生变形、机械压实、剪切或...     

重庆开县上二叠统长兴组红花生物礁成礁模式

通过对红花生物礁露头的精细解剖和微相分析,研究了礁的内部构成和成礁模式。红花生物礁发育3期礁体旋回：礁A、礁B和礁C。礁A由生屑泥晶灰岩和骨架岩构成;礁B由生屑泥晶灰岩、粘结岩、骨架岩和生屑灰岩构成;礁C由粘结岩、骨架岩和生屑灰岩构成。红花生物礁造礁生物有钙质海绵、钙藻类、苔藓虫和水螅类,附礁生物为有孔虫、腕足类、双壳类、腹足类和棘皮动物等。单个礁体内,由下往上的生物演化为：腕足类+双壳类+有孔虫组合→钙藻类→钙质海绵+水螅类+钙藻类+苔藓虫组合→生物碎屑;岩性演化为：生屑泥晶灰岩→粘结岩→骨架岩→生屑灰岩。礁B的生屑滩内生屑间为泥晶充填,生屑分选、磨圆较好,是由相邻的高能生屑滩侵蚀搬运到礁B侧翼低能区沉积形成。3期礁都发育在碎屑滩上,礁A为低能环境下形成的礁,礁B和礁C在礁A形成的高地上成礁,为高能环境礁;单个礁体的完整成礁模式为：在浅滩之上,钙藻类大量生长、粘结吸附颗粒固结基底,钙质海绵和钙藻类在硬质基底上繁茂生长,形成具有抗浪格架的生物礁,礁体暴露水面死亡后遭波浪、水流改造形成生屑滩。     

贵州紫云上石炭统叶状藻礁灰岩胶结物特征

贵州紫云县猴场镇扁平村的上石炭统叶状藻礁及其周边灰岩中广泛发育大量的各类胶结物。通过对胶结物的形态、结构和阴极发光特征以及胶结物间的接触关系的研究,可以确定成岩作用的先后并识别成岩环境。浅海海底同生成岩阶段大的孔隙中形成等厚环边针状胶结物、葡萄状胶结物,小的孔隙里形成微晶胶结物。早成岩阶段形成微亮晶和斑块状亮晶方解石胶结物和放射纤维扇状胶结物,表生成岩阶段的溶蚀作用和胶结作用强烈,胶结物类型有斑块状或等粒的方解石胶结物和等厚环壁柱状胶结物,等厚环壁柱状胶结物在所有胶结物中体积是较大的。早期胶结作用使叶状藻礁灰岩孔隙度大为降低。中、晚成岩阶段,孔隙被等厚环壁刃状胶结物和晶簇或斑块状亮晶方解石所充填,有些先成的胶结物被热液改造。后生作用阶段发生的主要是构造破裂作用,其中少数裂隙被红褐色含Fe2O3微晶层和晶体粉砂及渗流豆粒充填。叶状藻礁灰岩的孔隙在晚成岩阶段前或中被胶结而之后没有创造出大且连通的孔隙,是它没能成为油气储集层的原因之一。     

Evinosponges in the Triassic Esino Limestone (Southern Alps): documentation of early lithification and late diagenetic overprint

A carbonate buildup of Middle Triassic age, the Esino Limestone, outcrops in the Southern Calcareous Alps of Lombardy (N Italy). Along its margin and within the open subtidal facies, the Esino Limestone contains calcite cement-filled cavities of cm to m size. These features, known as evinosponges, may form pervasive networks within the host rock. The filling consists of concentric, isopachous layers of fibrous low-Mg calcite crystals characterized by strong undulose extinction and bent cleavages. The cement crusts are non-luminescent under cathodoluminescence, but both cements and host rock are cross-cut by micro-fractures filled with bright-luminescent calcite, related to late void-filling sparite. Mixing of different carbonates is reflected in stable isotope data. On the hand specimen scale, the oxygen and carbon isotope compositions of cements and host rock show little variation. When compared on a regional scale, the values cover a broad range from δ¹⁸O(PDB)=?5‰ to ?12‰ and from δ¹³O =0‰ to +3‰. The linear covariant trends defined by the oxygen and carbon isotope data for different sampling regions reflect the admixture of late, isotopically depleted calcite with an isotopically enriched non-luminescent calcite of early diagenetic origin. The Esino Limestone fibrous cements, which were probably precipitated in the marine or marine-meteoric phreatic environment, were affected by late diagenetic processes that caused mineral deformation and isotopic depletion through recrystallization and the admixture of a later calcite. These later calcites precipitated from penetrative fluids possibly related to Late Triassic volcanic activity and/or to the Late Cretaceous/Early Palaeogene alpine orogeny.     

Upper Silurian lithistid sponge reefs on Somerset Island, Arctic Canada

The Upper Ludlow Douro Formation contains the first reported Silurian sponge reefs. These relatively small (5–35 m diameter), mound-shaped structures contain, on average, 35% lithistid demosponges. Reefs are surrounded by irregular haloes of crinoid debris; abundance and diversity of all fossil groups decreases away from the reefs. Each reef is underlain by a lens of crinoid wackestone to grainstone rich in crinoid holdfasts; trepostomate bryozoans, solenoporacean algae and rhynchonellid brachiopods are locally common. The bulk of each reef consists of lime mudstone with abundant lithistid sponges. This is capped by a thin layer of wackestone with abundant tabulate and rugose corals and fewer lithistid sponges, calcareous algae, trepostomate bryozoans and stromatoporoids. This zonation, in which a sponge colonization community was replaced by a coral diversification community, is similar to that reported from some Middle Ordovician, Upper Jurassic and Holocene sponge reefs. The Douro sponge reefs were relatively low structures, with about 3 m maximum topographic relief. They grew on a broad carbonate platform, probably in warm, tranquil, turbid waters of normal or near-normal marine salinity. Periodic influxes of terrigenous mud adversely affected reef size, and caused biotic changes. Some of the reef lime mud was derived from non-reef sources, but significant quantities were also produced on the reefs. Reefs underwent synsedimentary lithification, bioerosion and minor storm erosion. Fabrics and compositions of sparry calcite in cavities record three generations of meteoric cementation. Originally siliceous spicules of the lithistid sponges were dissolved and the moulds later filled with sparry calcite. Early dissolution of siliceous spicules is common in reef environments, and may have caused fossil sponges to be under-represented in ancient reefs.     

柴北缘塔塔楞环斑花岗岩的岩相学和地球化学特征

塔塔楞环斑花岗岩是柴达木盆地北缘一个古生代复式岩体。该环斑花岗岩在主量元素上, 具有富SiO2、K2O和FeO*, 高K2O/Na2O和FeO*/MgO的特点, 其平均值分别为72.86％、5.17％和3.35％,2.22和10.73;∑REE在279.1×10－6～300.3×10－之间,（La/Lu）N为11.32～13.14,δEu在0.28～0.38之间;Ba、Rb、Pb、Th等元素的含量高,而Sr、Cr、Ni、V等元素的含量低。与经典环斑花岗岩相比,二者在岩相学上相同,在地球化学上也有相似之处,即该岩体也表现为高钾、富铁和LREE,Eu亏损的特征,但部分微量元素与典型环斑花岗岩有一定差异。岩体的形成时代和区域构造背景的综合分析显示,该岩体可能是早古生代后碰撞或后造山伸展构造环境下的产物。     

西沙海域西琛1井生物礁性质及储层岩石学特征

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