塔里木盆地走滑带碳酸盐岩断裂相特征及其与油气关系

通过露头与井下资料的综合分析,塔里木盆地奥陶系碳酸盐岩走滑断裂带断裂相具有多样性,根据内部构造发育程度可以分为断层核发育、断层核欠发育两类。露头走滑带断层核部以裂缝带、透镜体、滑动面等断裂相发育为特征,断裂边缘的破碎带发育裂缝带、变形带。裂缝带主要分布在断层核附近50m的破碎带内,裂缝多开启,渗流性好。断裂核部透镜体发育,在破碎带也有分布,破碎角砾组合的透镜体多致密。滑动面具有平直截切型、渐变条带型等两种类型,多为开启的半充填活动面。变形带多为方解石与碎裂岩充填,破碎带局部部位裂缝与溶蚀作用较发育。利用地震剖面、构造图、相干图等资料可以判识塔里木盆地内部奥陶系碳酸盐岩走滑断裂相的特征及其发育程度,沿走滑断裂带走向上断裂相具有分段性与差异性,根据渗流性可以定性区分高渗透相、致密相区。沿断裂带高渗透相区是碳酸盐岩缝洞体储层发育的有利部位。断裂相的横向变化造成油气分布的区段性,形成高渗透相输导模式、致密相遮挡模式等两类成藏模式。走滑断裂带碳酸盐岩断裂相的特征及其控藏作用对油气勘探开发储层建模具有重要意义。     

Fault zone geometry of a mature active normal fault: A potential high permeability channel (Pirgaki fault, Corinth rift, Greece)

We present results from petrophysical analysis of a normal fault zone with the aim of defining the flow pathways and their behavior during seismic and interseismic periods. Data are obtained on porosity geometry, strain structure and mineralogy of different domains of a normal fault zone in the Corinth rift. Data point out a close relationship between mineralogy of the clayey minerals, porosity network and strain structures and allow definition of a macroscopic anisotropy of the flow parameters with a strong control by microscopic ultracataclasite structures. The Pirgaki fault zone, developed within pelagic limestone, has a sharp asymmetric porosity profile, with a high porosity volume in the fault core and in the damage zone of the hanging wall. From porosity volumes and threshold measurements, a matrix permeability variation of 6 orders of magnitude could be expected between the protolith and the fault core. Modifications of this pathway during seismic and interseismic phases are depicted. Healing of cracks formed during seismic slip events occurred in the fault core zone and the porous network in the damage zone is sealed in a second step. The lens geometry of the fault core zone is associated with dissolution surfaces and open conduits where dissolved matter could move out of the fault core zone. These elementary processes are developed in particular along Riedel's structures and depend on the orientation of the strain surfaces relative to the local stress and depend also on the roughness of each surface type. P-surfaces are smooth and control shearing process. R-surfaces are rough and present two wavelengths of roughness. The long one controls localization of dissolution surfaces and conduits; the short one is characteristic of dissolution surfaces. The dissolved matter can precipitate in the open structures of the hanging wall damage zone, decreasing the connectivity of the macroscopic conduit developed within this part of the fault zone.     

碳酸盐岩断裂相分类特征——以新疆塔里木盆地柯坪露头为例

断裂相的概念为断裂带的内部结构研究提供了新的思路与建模方法,通过塔里木盆地柯坪露头断裂带的分析,碳酸盐岩断裂相特征有别于碎屑岩.柯坪露头碳酸盐岩断裂带不连续构造以滑动面、裂缝带和变形带发育为特征.根据形态识别出平直截切型、弯曲起伏型、渐变条带型三种类型滑动面.破碎带中裂缝带发育,裂缝充填少,是良好输导通道;断层核部存在...     

Geometric analysis and scaling relations of deformation bands in porous sandstone

Displacement, length and linkage of deformation bands have been studied in Jurassic sandstones in southeastern Utah. Isolated deformation bands with lengths (L) that span more than three orders of magnitude show similar displacement (D) profiles with more or less centrally located maxima and gently increasing gradient toward the tips. Soft- and hard-linked examples exhibit steeper displacement gradients near overlap zones and immature hard links, similar to previously described fault populations. The deformation band population shows power-law length and displacement distributions, but with lower exponents than commonly observed for populations of larger faults or small faults with distinct slip surfaces. Similarly, the D_max-L relationship of the deformation bands shows a well-defined exponent of ca 0.5, whereas the general disagreement for other fault populations is whether the exponent is 1 or 1.5. We suggest that this important difference in scaling law between deformation bands and other faults has to do with the lack of well-developed slip surfaces in deformation bands. During growth, deformation bands link to form zones of densely spaced bands, and a slip surface is eventually formed (when 100 m < L < 1 km). The growth and scaling relationship for the resulting populations of faults (slip surfaces) is expected to be similar to ‘ordinary’ fault populations. A change in the D_max-L scaling relationship at the point when zones of deformation bands develop slip surfaces is expected to be a general feature in porous sandstones where faults with slip surfaces develop from deformation bands. Down-scaling of ordinary fault populations into the size domain of deformation bands in porous sandstones is therefore potentially dangerous.     

Hydrodynamic response of subduction zones to seismic activity: A case study for the Costa Rica margin

Thermal anomalies in tectonically active areas are often attributed to sub-seafloor fluid circulation and faulting mechanisms, particularly in subduction zones where the largest thrust earthquakes occur. Postseismic fluid flow is enabled by the poroelastic response of the fault system to the earthquake's strain field, as well as by the rupturing of permeability barriers in the vicinity of the fault zone. We investigated the relative importance of these mechanisms on postseismic pore-pressure diffusion and advective heat transport in the subduction zone setting. A two-dimensional numerical fluid flow and heat transport model was developed for the Costa Rica subduction zone offshore of the Nicoya Peninsula. The flow and transport model was coupled with an earthquake strain model to quantify the effects of coseismic strain and permeability enhancement on fluid pressures and temperatures within the Costa Rica margin. Coseismic changes in pore pressure and postseismic pore-pressure diffusion were found to be sensitive to the compressibility of the porous medium, and patterns of pore-pressure recovery were more complex than that predicted by theoretical faulting models. Coseismic contraction and extension of the crust produced high fluid pressures close to the fault, while the inflow of fluid from depth increased fluid pressures several years following the simulated fault slip. Crustal deformation alone was not observed to perturb the temperature field. Laterally extensive permeability increases of two orders of magnitude along the décollement were required to produce small changes in heat flow. Local permeability changes in the upper slope region of least five orders of magnitude were necessary to noticeably affect heat flow. The results of the numerical simulations may help to refine conceptual faulting models and provide guidance for locating long-term hydrologic monitoring sites at Costa Rica and other subduction zones.     

Displacement history and slip rate on the Reelfoot fault of the New Madrid seismic zone

A displacement history and slip rates were determined for the Reelfoot fault in the New Madrid seismic zone from a seismic reflection profile and trench data. Based on calculations from the seismic reflection line the average slip rate over the last 80 million years is 0.0009 mm year⁻¹. Slip rate during the Late Cretaceous was 0.0007 mm year⁻¹, 0.002 mm year⁻¹ during the Paleocene Midway Group, 0.001 mm year⁻¹ during Paleocene–Eocene Wilcox Formation time, 0.0003 mm year⁻¹ during the post-Wilcox/pre-Holocene period, and a Holocene slip rate of 1.8 mm year⁻¹. Based on trench data, slip rate on the Reelfoot fault has been 4.4 mm year⁻¹ over the last 2400 years and a maximum of 6.2 mm year⁻¹ during the two most recent earthquake cycles between AD 900 and AD 1812. The Holocene slip rate is at least four orders of magnitude higher than the average Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic slip rates for the Reelfoot fault. It would appear that there has been a Quaternary change in the stress field in the central United States or the Reelfoot fault is experiencing a short-lived burst of seismic activity.     

断裂在纯净砂岩中的变形机制及断裂带内部结构

以纯净砂岩为对象,考虑了影响断裂变形的主要因素,包括成岩阶段、孔隙度、温度和围压,系统剖析了不同性质砂岩的断裂变形机制、微构造特征及形成断裂带的内部结构,对研究砂岩内断裂封闭性具有重要的指导意义。研究表明：纯净的砂岩在未固结-半固结成岩阶段发生断裂,变形机制为颗粒边界摩擦滑动,导致颗粒旋转和滚动,即为颗粒流,形成的微构造为解聚带,孔渗性同母岩比没有明显降低,断裂带尽管具有断层核和破碎带二分结构,但渗透率比母岩高,为流体垂向运移的通道;在固结成岩阶段（孔隙度大于15%）发生断裂,变形机制为碎裂作用,颗粒边界摩擦滑动导致颗粒旋转,即为碎裂流,形成的微构造为碎裂带,渗透率同母岩比一般降低1～3个数量级,形成侧向有一定封闭能力、垂向渗透的断裂带;固结阶段（孔隙度小于15%）发生断裂,开始由于破裂作用,形成断层角砾岩,伴随着碎裂流发生,形成碎裂岩,因此早期形成高渗透断裂带,后期断层逐渐封闭。固结成岩的砂岩在抬升过程发生断裂,变形机制为破裂作用,形成无内聚力的角砾岩,为高渗透断裂带。在不同成岩阶段发生变形,形成多类型变形构造的叠加,对于一条晚期形成的断层而言,由于不同深度变形机制及微构造类型不同,导致油气选择性充注,碎裂带和压溶胶结碎裂带阻止油气向高孔隙度砂岩中充注,解聚带会成为油气运移的通道,裂缝有利于油气优先充注。因此,高孔隙性砂岩中孔隙度较低的储集层由于碎裂带不发育常常含油气性最好,而低孔隙性砂岩由于裂缝产生含油气性较好。     

Experimental investigation of the influence of slip velocity and temperature on permeability during and after high-velocity fault slip

We used a rotary shear apparatus to investigate changes of fluid transport properties in a fault zone by real-time measurement of gas flow rates during and after shearing of hollow sandstone cylinders at various slip rates. Our apparatus measures permeability parallel to the slip plane in both the slip zone and wall rocks. In all cases, permeability decreased rapidly with increasing friction, but recovered soon after slip, reaching a steady state within several tens of minutes. The rate of reduction of permeability increased with increasing slip velocity. Permeability did not recover to pre-slip levels after low-velocity (ca. 0.0019 m/s) tests but recovered to exceed them after high-velocity (ca. 0.29 m/s) tests. Frictional heating of gases at the slip surface increased gas viscosity, which increased gas flow rate to produce an apparent permeability increase. The irreversible permeability changes of the low-velocity tests were caused by gouge formation due to wearing and smoothing of the slip surface. The increase of permeability after high-velocity tests was caused by mesoscale fracturing in response to rapid temperature rise. Changes of pore fluid viscosity contributed more to changes of flow rate than did permeability changes caused by shear deformation, although test results from different rocks and pore fluids might be different.     

Constraining slip rates and spacings for active normal faults

Numerous observations of extensional provinces indicate that neighbouring faults commonly slip at different rates and, moreover, may be active over different time intervals. These published observations include variations in slip rate measured along-strike of a fault array or fault zone, as well as significant across-strike differences in the timing and rates of movement on faults that have a similar orientation with respect to the regional stress field. Here we review published examples from the western USA, the North Sea, and central Greece, and present new data from the Italian Apennines that support the idea that such variations are systematic and thus to some extent predictable. The basis for the prediction is that: (1) the way in which a fault grows is fundamentally controlled by the ratio of maximum displacement to length, and (2) the regional strain rate must remain approximately constant through time. We show how data on fault lengths and displacements can be used to model the observed patterns of long-term slip rate where measured values are sparse. Specifically, we estimate the magnitude of spatial variation in slip rate along-strike and relate it to the across-strike spacing between active faults.     

断层侧向封闭性及对断圈油水关系的控制

张性正断层断裂带内部结构具有二分性:即断层核和破碎带,断层核由多个滑动面和不同类型的断层岩组成,其渗透性取决于带内泥质含量所决定的断层岩的类型,破碎带表现为高密度裂缝切割围岩,总体表现为高渗透的特征,因此,断裂带渗透能力取决于断层核与破碎带相对发育程度,侧向封闭能力主要取决于断裂带中泥质含量.存在5种侧向封闭类型:即对...     

Damage zone and slip-surface evolution over μm to km scales in high-porosity Navajo sandstone, Utah

Detailed mapping of throw variations and deformation along two km-scale normal faults in the high-porosity Navajo sandstone, Utah, has been used to investigate fault growth in this lithology. The faults consist of one or more through-going, striated, slip-surfaces, accommodating the greater part of the offset surrounded by a damage zone consisting of deformation band clusters and short, unconnected slip-surfaces. In contrast to previous models for deformation in this lithology, we find that the nucleation of slip-surfaces begins where measurable throw is negligible and deformation bands are forming and increasing in number. The microstructure and porosity of deformation bands and slip surfaces are distinct and independent of the amount of offset that they accommodate, i.e. they represent different and yet contemporaneous deformation mechanisms. The point where measurable throw begins to accumulate (the fault tip) is marked by the first through-going connected slip-surface. Increase in throw towards the centre of the fault results in a three-dimensional strain field, producing orthorhombic structural geometries within the damage zone. We find that the total width of the damage zone increases as offset is accumulated. For these faults, the damage zone width is approximately 2.5 times the total fault throw.     

A strike‐slip core complex from the Najd fault system,Arabian shield

Metamorphic core complexes are usually thought to be associated with regional crustal extension and crustal thinning, where deep crustal material is exhumed along gently dipping normal shear zones oblique to the regional extension direction. We present a new mechanism whereby metamorphic core complexes can be exhumed along crustal‐scale strike‐slip fault systems that accommodated crustal shortening. The Qazaz metamorphic dome in Saudi Arabia was exhumed along a gently dipping jog in a crustal‐scale vertical strike‐slip fault zone that caused more than 25 km of exhumation of lower crustal rocks by 30 km of lateral motion. Subsequently, the complex was transected by a branch of the strike‐slip fault zone, and the segments were separated by another 30 km of lateral motion. Strike‐slip core complexes like the Qazaz Dome may be common and may have an important local effect on crustal strength.     

Gas permeability evolution of cataclasite and fault gouge in triaxial compression and implications for changes in fault-zone permeability structure through the earthquake cycle

We report the results of permeability measurements of fault gouge and tonalitic cataclasite from the fault zone of the Median Tectonic Line, Ohshika, central Japan, carried out during triaxial compression tests. The experiments revealed marked effects of deformation on the permeability of the specimens. Permeability of fault gouge decreases rapidly by about two orders of magnitude during initial loading and continues to decrease slowly during further inelastic deformation. The drop in permeability during initial loading is much smaller for cataclasite than for gouge, followed by abrupt increase upon failure, and the overall change in permeability correlates well with change in volumetric strain, i.e., initial, nearly elastic contraction followed by dilatancy upon the initiation of inelastic deformation towards specimen failure. If cemented cataclasite suffers deformation prior to or during an earthquake, a cataclasite zone may change into a conduit for fluid flow. Fault gouge zones, however, are unlikely to switch to very permeable zones upon the initiation of fault slip. Thus, overall permeability structure of a fault may change abruptly prior to or during earthquakes and during the interseismic period. Fault gouge and cataclasite have internal angles of friction of about 36° and 45°, respectively, as is typical for brittle rocks.     

Deformation band populations in fault damage zone—impact on fluid flow

Fault damage zones in highly porous reservoirs are dominated by deformation bands that generally have permeability-reducing properties. Due to an absence of sufficiently detailed measurements and the irregular distribution of deformation bands, a statistical approach is applied to study their influence on flow. A stochastic model of their distribution is constructed, and band density, distribution, orientation, and flow properties are chosen based on available field observations. The sensitivity of these different parameters on the upscaled flow is analyzed. The influence of a heterogeneous permeability distribution was also studied by assuming the presence of high permeability holes within bands. The fragmentation and position of these holes affect significantly the block-effective permeability. Results of local upscaling with a diagonal and full upscaled permeability tensor are compared, and qualitatively similar results for the flow characteristics are obtained. Further, the procedure of iterative local–global upscaling is applied to the problem.     

Principal fault zone width and permeability of the active Neodani fault, Nobi fault system, Southwest Japan

The internal structure and permeability of the Neodani fault, which was last activated at the time of the 1891 Nobi earthquake (M8.0), were examined through field survey and experiments. A new exposure of the fault at a road construction site reveals a highly localized feature of the past fault deformation within a narrow fault core zone. The fault of the area consists of three zone units towards the fault core: (a) protolith rocks; (b) 15 to 30 m of fault breccia, and (c) 200 mm green to black fault gouge. Within the fault breccia zone, cataclastic foliation oblique to the fault has developed in a fine-grained 2-m-wide zone adjacent to the fault. Foliation is defined by subparallel alignment of intact lozenge shaped clasts, or by elongated aggregates of fine-grained chert fragments. The mean angle of 20°, between the foliation and the fault plane suggests that the foliated breccia accommodated a shear strain of γ<5 assuming simple shear for the rotation of the cataclastic foliation. Previous trench surveys have revealed that the fault has undergone at least 70 m of fault displacement within the last 20,000 years in this locality. The observed fault geometry suggests that past fault displacements have been localized into the 200-mm-wide gouge zone. Gas permeability analysis of the gouges gives low values of the order of 10⁻²⁰ m². Water permeability as low as 10⁻²⁰ m² is therefore expected for the fault gouge zone, which is two orders of magnitude lower than the critical permeability suggested for a fault to cause thermal pressurization during a fault slip.     

Seismic slip rates,potential subsurface rupture areas and seismic potential of the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault

The Vienna Basin Transfer Fault (VBTF) is a slow active fault with moderate seismicity (I _max~8–9, M _max~5.7) passing through the most vulnerable regions of Austria and Slovakia. We use different data to constrain the seismic potential of the VBTF including slip values computed from the seismic energy release during the 20th century, geological data on fault segmentation and a depth-extrapolated 3-D model of a generalized fault surface, which is used to define potential rupture zones. The seismic slip of the VBTF as a whole is in the range of 0.22–0.31 mm/year for a seismogenic fault thickness of 8 km. Seismic slip rates for individual segments vary from 0.00 to 0.77 mm/year. Comparing these data to geologically and GPS-derived slip velocities (>1 mm/year) proofs that the fault yields a significant seismic slip deficit. Segments of the fault with high seismic slip contrast from segments with no slip representing locked segments. Fault surfaces of segments within the seismogenic zone (4–14 km depth) vary from 55 to 400 km². Empirical scaling relations show that these segments are sufficiently large to explain both, earthquakes observed in the last centuries, and the 4th century Carnuntum earthquake, for which archeo-seismological data suggest a magnitude of M ≥ 6. Based on the combination of all data (incomplete earthquake catalog, seismic slip deficits, locked segments, potential rupture areas, indications of strong pre-catalog earthquakes) we argue, that the maximum credible earthquake for the VBTF is in the range M _max = 6.0–6.8, significantly larger than the magnitude of the strongest recorded events (M = 5.7).     

Fault zone characteristics,fracture systems and permeability implications of Middle Triassic Muschelkalk in Southwest Germany

Fault zone structure and lithology affect permeability of Triassic Muschelkalk limestone-marl-alternations in Southwest Germany, a region characterized by a complex tectonic history. Field studies of eight fault zones provide insights into fracture system parameters (orientation, density, aperture, connectivity, vertical extension) within fault zone units (fault core, damage zone). Results show decreasing fracture lengths with distances to the fault cores in well-developed damage zones. Fracture connectivity at fracture tips is enhanced in proximity to the slip surfaces, particularly caused by shorter fractures. Different mechanical properties of limestone and marl layers obviously affect fracture propagation and thus fracture system connectivity and permeability. Fracture apertures are largest parallel and subparallel to fault zones and prominent regional structures (e.g., Upper Rhine Graben) leading to enhanced fracture-induced permeabilities. Mineralized fractures and mineralizations in fault cores indicate past fluid flow. Permeability is increased by the development of hydraulically active pathways across several beds (non-stratabound fractures) to a higher degree than by the formation of fractures interconnected at fracture tips. We conclude that there is an increase of interconnected fractures and fracture densities in proximity to the fault cores. This is particularly clear in more homogenous rocks. The results help to better understand permeability in Muschelkalk rocks.     

Variation of slip and creep along the levant rift over the past 4500 years

Frequency—magnitude relations were established for a fault system embedded in a shear zone with dimensions 1000 km × 200 km that extends from the Gulf of Elat to the East-Anatolian fault. The resulting frequency—magnitude relations were found to be in good agreement with both the documented instrumental earthquake statistics for M_L 4.5 in the present century and microearthquake activity for M_L 1.5 recorded in Israel and some adjacent territories during 1976–1979. When these frequency—magnitude relations are extended to 2500 B.C., one can account for the maximal magnitude earthquakes that echo in the Bible and are manifested in archaeological excavations.

It is found that seismic slip-rates increase significantly from south toward north in such a way that in north-central Israel and Lebanon, seismic slip constitutes only 1/3 of the motion, the rest being attributed to visco-elastic processes. Further north, as one approaches the collision zone with the Turkish plate, aseismicity tends to disappear and the slip is purely seismic.     

Caving-induced fault reactivation behaviour and its effects on mining safety with a multiple seam context

Caving-induced fault reactivation and its effects on caving process are widely recognized as serious safety issues in mining and tunnelling industry. In this study, the effects of a variety of factors (i.e. friction coefficient, stick–slip instability, geological structure, pre-mining status, mining and its induced effects) that might exert an influence on fault dynamic behaviour of a 5-seam coal mine are investigated using practical mine-wide finite element numerical models with a normal fault. Based on the research outcomes on R-minimum-based finite element modelling of earthquake dynamics, the node-to-point contact strategy and the nonlinear friction contact law have been used here to simulate and analyse the caving-induced stick–slip frictional instability along the fault and related effects. The simulation results show that: (1) stress distribution before mining is relatively uniform around the fault for a homogenous rock material case, while stress concentration appears around the fault for the model with contrasting rock material properties; (2) the multiple-layered models are in favour of fault reactivation than models with only one material for whole strata; (3) the fault reactivation scale (i.e. dynamic relative motion and fault slip) induced by caving activity is significantly affected by rock mass strength, caving depth and its relative position to the fault. As caving progresses deeper and closer to the fault, the fault reactivation scale increases. Meanwhile, the fault in low strength strata is much more sensitive to fault slip behaviour; (4) seismic source parameters, namely seismic moment and moment magnitude, are adopted to evaluate the magnitude of caving-induced seismicity based on numerical results and fault slip risk and magnitude increase as fault reactivation scale expands; (5) during the caving stage, the failure zone initiates, develops and eventually connects the reactivated fault to the working area, presenting asymmetric failure pattern around the caving zone. The failure zone is obviously larger for the side closer to the fault than the other side due to caving-induced fault reactivation effects. This could help in better understanding fault reactivation and rock failure behaviours towards an optimised design of caving in a faulted region.

     

断层面摩擦强度对工作面开采影响数值模拟分析

断层面摩擦强度是评价煤炭开采中应力扰动诱发断层滑动危险性的依据。依托晋城矿区成庄井田,采用理论分析和数值模拟计算方法,分析了断层面摩擦强度对深部地应力的约束机制,研究了成庄井田F13断层及其在不同摩擦强度条件下对回采工作面顶板稳定性、超前支承压力分布和断层滑动的影响规律。研究结果表明:地壳深部最大与最小主应力比值受断层面摩擦强度的限制,当其达到临界方向断层的摩擦强度极限时,断层就会发生滑动;断层破碎带的存在导致初始应力场扰动,形成断层带低应力区及高应力集中区,在回采过程中将直接影响煤层顶板移动变形和采动应力分布;断层面摩擦强度较小时,工作面开采至断层附近顶板下沉量及断层上下盘错动位移较大,支承压力峰值由大变小明显,断层面上剪应力与正应力的比值易达到断层面的摩擦系数,断层滑动的危险性较大。