Aspects of the cycle of inorganic nitrogen compounds in the tropical rain forest of the Ivory Coast

A partial balance of mineral N is given for the basins of two coastal rivers in a forest zone in the Ivory Coast. The dry and wet depositions on the basin surfaces is given for particulate matter (NO₃ ^–, NH₄ ⁺). The quantity of mineral N washed away in the rivers is evaluated. The losses from leaching of the soils by rainwater are about 0.33 to 1.0% of the atmospheric depositions for NH₄ ⁺–N and 2.2 to 5.8% for NO₃ ^––N. The yearly atmospheric input of N compounds to the ecosystem, about 1.4 g N m^–2 y^–1, is at least 14% of mineral N formed in the soils and is therefore quite significant.     

Emission of nitrous oxide from temperate forest soils into the atmosphere

N₂O emission rates were measured during a 13-month period from July 1981 till August 1982 with a frequency of once every two weeks at six different forest sites in the vicinity of Mainz, Germany. The sites were selected on the basis of soil types typical for many of the Central European forest ecosystems. The individual N₂O emission rates showed a high degree of temporal and spatial variabilities which, however, were not significantly correlated to variabilities in soil moisture content or soil temperatures. However, the N₂O emission rates followed a general seasonal trend with relatively high values during spring and fall. These maxima coincided with relatively high soil moisture contents, but may also have been influenced by the leaf fall in autumn. In addition, there was a brief episode of relatively high N₂O emission rates immediately after thawing of the winter snow. The individual N₂O emission rates measured during the whole season ranged between 1 and 92 g N₂O-N m^–2 h^–1. The average values were in the range of 3–11 g N₂O-N m^–2 h^–1 and those with a 50% probability were in the range of 2–8 g N₂O-N m^–2 h^–1. The total source strength of temperate forest soils for atmospheric N₂O may be in the range of 0.7–1.5 Tg N yr^–1.     

Nitrous oxide emissions from fertilized and unfertilized soils in a subtropical region (Andalusia,Spain)

Field measurements of N₂O emission rates were carried out from August until October 1982 in a subtropical region in Europe, i.e. in Andalusia, Spain. The measurements were performed by using an automatic sampling and analysis technique allowing the semi-continuous determination of N₂O emission rates. The N₂O emission rates were positively correlated to the soil surface temperature and exhibited a diurnal rhythm with maximum rates in the afternoon and minimum rates in the early morning with average values of 1 g N₂O–N/m²/h for the grass lawn and 15 g N₂O–N/m²/h for cultivated land. Application of urea and ammonium nitrate resulted in elevated N₂O emission rates when compared to the unfertilized control. The loss of fertilizer-nitrogen as N₂O was 0.18% for urea and 0.04% for NH₄NO₃ which compares very well with data obtained in a temperate climate (Germany). The total source strength of fertilizer-derived N₂O is estimated to be 0.01–2.2 Tg N₂O–N per year. The N₂O flux from unfertilized natural soils may be as high as 4.5 Tg N₂O–N, indicating that the N₂O emission from soils contributes significantly to the global N₂O budget.     

Meteorological results of MONSOON-88 expedition (pre-monsoon period)

Mean atmospheric circulation, moisture budget and net heat exchange were studied during a pre-monsoon period (18th March to 3rd May, 1988), making use of the data collected on board Akademik Korolev in the central equatorial and southern Arabian Sea region. The net heat exchange (R _n ) is found to be about 20 W m^–2 for a small area (0–4° N; 55–60° E), 50% less than the dimatological value. The mean value of net radiation (140 W m^–2) is less than the climatological value, which was due to higher cloud amount. The higher SST enhanced both the latent and sensible heat fluxes.The mean atmospheric circulation obtained from the upper air data is quite convincing. The mean exchange coefficient (C _e ) estimated from the moisture budget is about 1.0 × 10^–3 for a wind speed of 4 m s^–1. This value is slightly lower than that obtained by the usual methods.National Institute of Oceanography, RC, 52-Kirlampudi layout, Visakhapatnam — 530 023.India Meteorological Department, Gauhati.     

Field measurements of NO and NO2 emissions from fertilized and unfertilized soils

Field measurements of NO and NO₂ emissions from soils have been performed in Finthen near Mainz (F.R.G.) and in Utrera near Seville (Spain). The applied method employed a flow box coupled with a chemiluminescent NO _x detector allowing the determination of minimum flux rates of 2 g N m^-2 h^-1 for NO and 3 g m^-2 h^-1 for NO₂.The NO and NO₂ flux rates were found to be strongly dependent on soil surface temperatures and showed strong daily variations with maximum values during the early afternoon and minimum values during the early morning. Between the daily variation patterns of NO and NO₂, there was a time lag of about 2 h which seem to be due to the different physico-chemical properties of NO and NO₂. The apparent activation energy of NO emission calculated from the Arrhenius equation ranged between 44 and 103 kJ per mole. The NO and NO₂ emission rates were positively correlated with soil moisture in the upper soil layer.The measurements carried out in August in Finthen clearly indicate the establishment of NO and NO₂ equilibrium mixing ratios which appeared to be on the order of 20 ppbv for NO and 10 ppbv for NO₂. The soil acted as a net sink for ambient air NO and NO₂ mixing ratios higher than the equilibrium values and a net source for NO and NO₂ mixing ratios lower than the equilibrium values. This behaviour as well as the observation of equilibrium mixing ratios clearly indicate that NO and NO₂ are formed and destroyed concurrently in the soil.Average flux rates measured on bare unfertilized soils were about 10 g N m^-2 h^-1 for NO₂ and 8 g N m^-2 h^-1 for NO. The NO and NO₂ flux rates were significantly reduced on plant covered soil plots. In some cases, the flux rates of both gases became negative indicating that the vegetation may act as a sink for atmospheric NO and NO₂.Application of mineral fertilizers increased the NO and NO₂ emission rates. Highest emission rates were observed for urea followed by NH₄Cl, NH₄NO₃ and NaNO₃. The fertilizer loss rates ranged from 0.1% for NaNO₃ to 5.4% for urea. Vegetation cover substantially reduced the fertilizer loss rate.The total NO _x emission from soil is estimated to be 11 Tg N yr^-1. This figure is an upper limit and includes the emission of 7 Tg N yr^-1 from natural unfertilized soils, 2 Tg N yr^-1 from fertilized soils as well as 2 Tg N yr^-1 from animal excreta. Despite its speculative character, this estimation indicates that NO _x emission by soil is important for tropospheric chemistry especially in remote areas where the NO _x production by other sources is comparatively small.     

Influence of Transport over a Mountain Ridge on the Chemical Composition of Marine Aerosols during the ACE-2 Hillcloud Experiment

Aerosol chemical composition and trace gas measurements were made at twolocations on the northeastern peninsula of Tenerife during the ACE-2HILLCLOUD experiment, between 28 June and 23 July 1997. Measurementswere made of coarse (#gt;2.5 m aerodynamic diameter) and fine (#lt; 2.5m) aerosol Cl^–, NO₃ ^–,SO₄ ^2–, non-sea saltSO₄ ^2– (NSSS),CH₃SO₃ ^– (MSA) andNH₄ ⁺, and gas phase dimethylsulphide (DMS), HCl,HNO₃, SO₂, CH₃COOH, HCOOH andNH₃. Size distributions were measured using a cascadeimpactor. Results show that in marine air masses NSSS and MSA wereformed via DMS oxidation, with additional NSSS present in air massescontaining a continental component. Using a Eulerian box model approachfor aerosols transported between upwind and downwind sites, a mean NSSSproduction rate of 4.36 × 10^–4 gm^–3 s^–1 was calculated for daytimeclear sky periods (highest insolation), with values for cloudy periodsduring daytime and nighttime of 3.55 × 10^–4 and2.40 × 10^–4 g m^–3s^–1, respectively. The corresponding rates for MSA were6.23 × 10^–6, 8.49 × 10^–6and 6.95 × 10^–6 g m^–3s^–1, respectively. Molar concentration ratios forMSA/NSSS were 8.7% (1.8–18.2%) and 1.9%(1.3–3.5%) in clean and polluted air masses, respectively.Reactions occurring within clouds appeared to have a greater influenceon rates of MSA production, than of NSSS, while conversely daytime gasphase reactions were more important for NSSS. For MSA, nighttimein-cloud oxidation rates exceeded rates of daytime gas phase productionvia OH oxidation of DMS. NSSS, MSA and ammonium had trimodal sizedistributions, with modes at 0.3, 4.0 and >10.0 m (NSSS andNH₄ ⁺), and 0.3, 1.5 and 4.0 m (MSA). Nosignificant production of other aerosol species was observed, with theexception of ammonium, which was formed at variable rates dependent onneutralisation of the aerosol with ammonia released from spatiallynon-uniform surface sources. Seasalt components were mainly present incoarse particles, although sub-micrometre chloride was also measured.Losses by deposition exceeded calculated expectations for all species,and were highest for the seasalt fraction and nitrate.     

CO2 efflux from agricultural soils in Eastern Germany – comparison of a closed chamber system with eddy covariance measurements

Summary In order to quantify the effects of temperature and soil water content on soil respiration, during June and July 2002 CO₂ soil efflux was measured with a closed chamber (non-steady state, flow through) system in the field. The amount of CO₂ emission was highly dependent on the land-use in the observation area, which consisted of meadow soil and brownfield. The CO₂ emission from the brownfield ranged from 0.9 to 5.5µmol CO₂ m^–2s^–1, and that for meadow soil from 1.1 to 12.6µmol CO₂ m^–2s^–1. Soil respiration, as a function of soil temperature (T_soil), relative soil water content (RSWC), soil pH, and the soil carbon/nitrogen ratio (C/N), was analysed by a modified closed non-linear regression model. Between 63% and 81% of the variation of soil CO₂ emission could be explained with changes of T_soil, RSWC, pH, and C/N for the individual chambers on the brownfield.Subsequent analysis involved a comparison of the soil chamber results with eddy covariance (EC) measurements of one week, and included a footprint analysis to account for the influence of the different land use types on the measurements. For this, EC data (143 measurements after quality check) were restricted to those originating from the brownfield area with more than 90% of the flux. For a second comparison, the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) was calculated for different parts of the meadow using the SVAT model PROXEL. Together with the respiration from the brownfield, a weighted average of model NEE was produced using the flux contribution determined by the footprint model. Acceptable agreement (r²=0.69) was found between the modelled data and individual EC measurements, except during situations where the performance of the footprint model was disturbed by internal boundary layer effects.     

Influences on surface energy fluxes in simulated present and doubled CO2 climates

The surface energy fluxes simulated by the CSIRO9 Mark 1 GCM for present and doubled CO₂ conditions are analyzed. On the global scale the climatological flux fields are similar to those from four GCMs studied previously. A diagnostic calculation is used to provide estimates of the radiative forcing by the GCM atmosphere. For 1 × CO₂, in the global and annual mean, cloud produces a net cooling at the surface of 31 W m^–2. The clear-sky longwave surface greenhouse effect is 311 W m^–2, while the corresponding shortwave term is –79 W m^–2. As for the other GCM results, the CSIRO9 CO₂ surface warming (global mean 4.8°C) is closely related to the increased downward longwave radiation (LW ). Global mean net cloud forcing changes little. The contrast in warming between land and ocean, largely due to the increase in evaporative cooling (E) over ocean, is highlighted. In order to further the understanding of influences on the fluxes, simple physically based linear models are developed using multiple regression. Applied to both 1 × CO₂ and CO₂ December–February mean tropical fields from CSIRO9, the linear models quite accurately (3–5 W m^–2 for 1 × CO₂ and 2–3 W m^–2 for CO₂) relate LW and net shortwave radiation to temperature, surface albedo, the water vapor column, and cloud. The linear models provide alternative estimates of radiative forcing terms to those from the diagnostic calculation. Tropical mean cloud forcings are compared. Over land, E is well correlated with soil moisture, and sensible heat with air-surface temperature difference. However an attempt to relate the spatial variation of LWt within the tropics to that of the nonflux fields had little success. Regional changes in surface temperature are not linearly related to, for instance, changes in cloud or soil moisture.     

Nitrogen compound emission from biomass burning in tropical African savanna FOS/DECAFE 1991 experiment (Lamto,Ivory Coast)

Gaseous nitrogen compounds (NO _x , NO _y , NH₃, N₂O) were measured at ground level in smoke plumes of prescribed savanna fires in Lamto, in the southern Ivory Coast, during the FOS/DECAFE experiment in January 1991. During the flaming phase, the linear regression between [NO _x ] and [CO₂] (differences in concentration between smoke plumes and atmosheric background) results volumic emission ratio [NO _x ]/[CO₂]=1.37×10^–3 with only slight differences between heading and backing fires. Nearly 90% of the nitrogen oxides are emitted as NO. Average emission ratios of other compounds are: 1.91, 0.047, and 0.145×10^–3 for NO _y , NH₃ and N₂O, respectively. The emission ratios obtained during this field experiment are compred with corresponding values measured during former experiments with the same plant species in combustion chambers. An accurate determination of both the biomass actually burned and of the plant nitrogen content, allows an assessment of emission fluxes of N-compounds from Guinean savanna burns. Preliminary results dealing with the influence of fire on biogenic emissions from soils are also reported.     

Mass transfer at the air/water interface: Mass accommodation coefficients of SO2, HNO3, NO2 and NH3

We present here experimental determinations of mass accommodation coefficients using a low pressure tube reactor in which monodispersed droplets, generated by a vibrating orifice, are brought into contact with known amounts of trace gases. The uptake of the gases and the accommodation coefficient are determined by chemical analysis of the aqueous phase.We report in this article measurements of _exp=(6.0±0.8)×10^–2 at 298 K and with a total pressure of 38 Torr for SO₂, (5.0±1.0)×10^–2 at 297 K and total pressure of 52 Torr for HNO₃, (1.5±0.6)×10^–3 at 298 K and total pressure of 50 Torr for NO₂, (2.4±1.0)×10^–2 at 290 K and total pressure of 70 Torr for NH₃.These values are corrected for mass transport limitations in the gas phase leading to =(1.3±0.1)×10^–1 (298 K) for SO₂, (1.1±0.1)×10^–1 (298 K) for HNO₃, (9.7±0.9)×10^–2 (290 K) for NH₃, (1.5±0.8)×10^–3 (298 K) for NO₂ but this last value should not be considered as the true value of for NO₂ because of possible chemical interferences.Results are discussed in terms of experimental conditions which determine the presence of limitations on the mass transport rates of gaseous species into an aqueous phase, which permits the correction of the experimental values.     

模拟氮沉降对温带阔叶红松林地氮素净矿化量的影响

采用埋置PVC管的树脂芯方法原位测定了不同氮形态及其剂量作用下长白山阔叶红松林地0～7 cm和0～15 cm土壤氮素净氨化、净硝化和净矿化量的季节和年际变化规律.近3年的观测结果表明,对照处理不同土层氮素年净矿化量中以净氨化占主导地位,约占净矿化量的53％～72％,高剂量NO3-N的输入使该比例减少至37％～66％,而NH4-N的输入却使该比例增至86％～92％.随着模拟氮沉降量增加,土壤氮素年净矿化量也随之增加,尤其外源NH+4-N输入对净矿化量的促进作用更为明显,但随着施肥年限的延长,这种促进作用逐渐减弱.与林地0～15 cm土壤相比,氮沉降量增加对0～7 cm土壤氮素净氨化和净矿化量的促进作用更为明显,尤其是NH4Cl处理的促进作用更大.通过将实验结果与前人报道的野外原位观测整合,逐步回归分析后发现土壤氮素年净矿化量随着氮素年沉降量的增加而增大,氮沉降量对不同区域森林土壤氮素年净矿化量的贡献率约为38％;大气氮沉降量、森林有机层pH及其碳/氮比值可解释不同区域森林表层土壤氮素年净矿化量一半的变化.研究结果将利于有效预测区域林地氮素净矿化量特征及其对环境变化的响应.     

Microwave vegetation optical depth and inverse modelling of soil emissivity using Nimbus/SMMR satellite observations

Summary A radiative transfer model has been used to determine the large scale effective 6.6 GHz and 37 GHz optical depths of the vegetation cover. Knowledge of the vegetation optical depth is important for satellite-based large scale soil moisture monitoring using microwave radiometry. The study is based on actual observed large scale surface soil moisture data and observed dual polarization 6.6 and 37 GHz Nimbus/SMMR brightness temperatures over a 3-year period. The derived optical depths have been compared with microwave polarization differences and polarization ratios in both frequencies and with Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values from NOAA/AVHRR. A synergistic approach to derive surface soil emissivity from satellite observed brightness temperatures by inverse modelling is described. This approach improves the relationship between satellite derived surface emissivity and large scale top soil moisture fromR ²=0.45 (no correction for vegetation) toR ²=0.72 (after correction for vegetation). This study also confirms the relationship between the microwave-based MPDI and NDVI earlier described and explained in the literature.List of Symbols f frequency [Hz] - f _i(p) fractional absorption at polarizationp - h surface roughness - h h cos² - H horizontal polarization - n _i complex index of refraction - p polarization (H orV) - R _s microwave surface reflectivity - T _B(p) brightness temperature at polarizationp - T ^* normalized brightness temperature - T polarization difference (T _v-T _H) - T _s temperature of soil surface - T _c temperature of canopy - T _max daily maximum air temperature - T _min daily minimum air temperature - V vertical polarization - soil moisture distribution factor; also used for the constant to partition the influence of bound and free water components to the dielectric constant of the mixture - empirical complex constant related to soil texture - microwave transmissivity of vegetation (=e ^–) - ^* effective transmissivity of vegetation (assuming =0) - microwave emissivity - _s emissivity of smooth soil surface - _rs emissivity of rough soil surface - _vs emissivity of vegetated surface - soil moisture content (% vol.) - K dielectric constant [F·m^–1] - K _fw dielectric constant of free water [F·m^–1] - K _ss dielectric constant of soil solids [F·m^–1] - K _m dielectric constant of mixture [F·m^–1] - K _o permittivity of free space [8.854·10^–12 F·m^–1] - high frequency limit ofK _wf [F·m^–1] - wavelength [m] - incidence angle [degrees from nadir] - polarization ratio (T _H/T _V) - b soil bulk density [gr·cm^–3] - s soil particle density [gr·cm^–3] - R surface reflectivity in red portion of spectrum - NIR surface reflectivity in near infrared portion of spectrum - _eff effective conductivity of soil extract [mS·cm^–1] - vegetation optical depth - _6.6 vegetation optical depth at 6.6 GHz - ₃₇ vegetation optical depth at 37 GHz - ^* effective vegetation optical depth (assuming =0) - single scattering albedo of vegetation With 12 Figures     

Rainwater Chemistry and Wet Deposition over the Equatorial Forested Ecosystem of Zoétélé (Cameroon)

Within the framework of IDAF (IGAC DEBITS AFRICA: International GlobalAtmospheric Chemistry/DEposition of Biogeochemically Important TraceSpecies/Africa) network, data analysis is realised on precipitation chemical composition collected in Zoétélé, in Southern Cameroon. This station, located atabout 200 km from the Atlantic Ocean, is representative of a so-called `Evergreen Equatorial Forest' ecosystem. An automatic wet-only precipitation collector was operated at the station from 1996 to 2000. The rainfall regime, associated with eastward advection of moist and cool monsoon air masses, amounts to an average of 1700 mm/year. Inorganic and organic content of the precipitation were determined by IC in 234 rainfall events, representing a total 4,583 mm of rainfall from an overall of 7,100 mm.The mean annual precipitation chemistry and wet deposition fluxes characteristic of an African equatorial forest are quantified. Typical atmospheric gases and particles sources influence the precipitation chemical content and the associated deposition of chemical species. Indeed, hydrogen concentration is the highest (12.0 eq.L^–1) of the IDAF measurements, leading to acid rains with a low mean pH 4.92. The mineral species are dominated by nitrogenous compounds (NH₄ ⁺:10.5 and NO₃ ^–: 6.9 eq.L^–1), Ca²⁺ (8.9 eq.L^–1) and SO₄ ^{2 –} 5.1 eq.L^–1. Relationship between Ca^{2 +} and SO₄ ^{2 –} indicated aterrigeneous particulate source and an additional SO₄ ^{2 –} contributionprobably due to swamps and volcano emissions. Na⁺ and Cl^–concentrations, around 4.0 eq.L^–1, seem very low for this site,accounting for the marine source. Besides, strong correlations between NH₄ ⁺/K⁺/Cl^– indicate the biomass burning originof these species. Accordingly, precipitation chemistry in Zoétéléis influenced by three major sources: biogenic emissions from soil and forest ecosystems, biomass burning from savannah, and terrigenous signature from particles emissions of arid zones; and three minor sources: marine, volcano and anthropogenic. In spite of the relatively low concentration of all these elements, the wet deposition is quite significant due to the high precipitation levels, with for example a nitrogenous compounds deposition of 34 mmol.m^–2.yr^–1.     

Seasonal variation of gaseous HNO3 and NH3 at a Tropical Savannah site

Gaseous nitric acid and ammonia were sampled with annular denuders at a forest savannah site from April to December 1987. The analysis of the extract was made spectrophotometrically and by a selective electrode for NO₃ ^– and NH₄ ⁺, respectively. Higher concentrations were observed during the vegetation burning period at the end of the dry season. In the studied savannah area, large soil emissions of NO occur during the rainy season, although very low concentrations of HNO₃ (0.035 ppb) and also of particulate NO₃ ^– (0.43 g m^-3) were observed; it is likely that NO_x are lost by fast vertical transport to the upper troposphere. During the nonburning period, the average concentration of NH₃ was 2.7 ppb, which is much lower than values given in the literature for the tropical America atmosphere. The concentrations of HNO₃ and NH₃ were always below the values needed to produce ammonium nitrate aerosols.     

Atmospheric Dry Deposition to Marble and Red Stone

This paper presents dry deposition flux and deposition velocity of atmospheric particles on white marble and red stone at Dayalbagh, a suburban site of semi arid region, which is 10 km away from the industrial sector of the Agra city where due to agricultural practices vegetation predominates. The wind speed at Agra is mostly in the range of 1–2 m s^–1. The atmospheric calm conditions at Agra in summer, monsoon, and winter seasons are 47%, 35%, and 76%, respectively. Industrial areas of the city are away from Dayalbagh and are located in the NE, E, SE, and SW sectors. The main industrial activities, which are in operation in Agra city and its outskirts, are foundry and forging industry. The other industrial activities in Agra are rubber processing, lime oxidation and pulverization, chemicals, engineering and brick refractory kilns. Dry deposition samples were collected on dry days on white marble and red stone (0.224 m × 0.224 m × 0.02 m) using surface washing method. Both slabs were fixed to an iron stand (1.5 m height) at an angle of about 80 from the horizontal and exposed for 24 h on the roof of the faculty building. The order of deposition flux on white marble is NH₄⁺ > Mg²⁺ > Ca²⁺ > Na⁺ > Cl^– > K⁺ > NO₃^– > SO₄^2– > F^– and that on red stone is NH₄⁺ > Mg²⁺ > Ca²⁺ > SO₄^2– > Na⁺ > NO₃^– > K⁺ > F^– > Cl^–. Average dry deposition flux of major ions varies from 3.4 to 128.5 M m^–2 d^–1. The sum of major cations on white marble and red stone are 516.4 and 450.4 eq m^–2 d^–1, respectively while sum of major anions are 425.3 and 400.4 eq m^–2 d^–1 on white marble and red stone, respectively. Higher deposition of all ions was observed when wind blows from NE as most of the Agra Iron foundries and Ferozabad glass industries lie in this direction. The mean values of dry deposition velocity of ions vary between 0.22 cm s^–1 to 1.49 cm s^–1. Deposition velocity for all ions is higher on white marble than red stone inspite of rougher surface of red stone as compared to white marble. This could be due to the chemical nature of white marble, which is made of dolomite and hence adds significant amount of ions by dissolution during washing. Seasonally the deposition velocity was highest in winter.     

Ammonia measurements at Niwot Ridge,Colorado and point arena,California using the tungsten oxide denuder tube technique

The applicability of the tungsten oxide denuder tube technique for the measurement of ammonia in the rural troposphere was investigated. The technique is based on selective chemisorption of NH₃ from a gas stream, thermal desorption, conversion to NO, and analysis by NO–O₃ chemiluminescence. Nitric acid, which is also collected and desorbed as NO, was distinguished from NH₃ by differences in desorption temperature. Substituted amines were also collected, but desorbed at a slightly lower temperature than NH₃ in dry air. At high relative humidities, alkylamines may be hydrolyzed to NH₃ on the denuder surface and hence detected as NH₃. Overheating of the denuder tube during the temperature-programmed desorption was found to cause significant irreversible degradation of system performance.The technique was used to measure NH₃ mixing ratios at two rural locations in the United States. At a mountain site in Colorado during the winter of 1984, the average NH₃ mixing ratio was 0.20 ppbv (=0.08 ppbv). At an isolated coastal site in northern California during the spring of 1985, the average NH₃ mixing ratio was 0.36 ppbv (=0.17 ppbv). Correlations of the latter measurements with wind direction and NO _x level suggest that the NH₃ mixing ratio in Pacific marine air at 40°N is <-0.25 ppbv.     

Vertical distribution of dimethylsulfide,sulfur dioxide,aerosol ions,and radon over the Northeast Pacific Ocean

Dimethylsulfide (DMS), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), methanesulfonate (MSA), nonsea-salt sulfate (nss-SO₄ ^2–), sodium (Na⁺), ammonium (NH₄ ⁺), and nitrate (NO₃ ^–) were determined in samples collected by aircraft over the open ocean in postfrontal maritime air masses off the northwest coast of the United States (3–12 May 1985). Measurements of radon daughter concentrations and isentropic trajectory calculations suggested that these air masses had been over the Pacific for 4–8 days since leaving the Asian continent. The DMS and MSA profiles showed very similar structures, with typical concentrations of 0.3–1.2 and 0.25–0.31 nmol m^–3 (STP) respectively in the mixed layer, decreasing to 0.01–0.12 and 0.03–0.13 nmol m^–3 (STP) at 3.6 km. These low atmospheric DMS concentrations are consistent with low levels of DMS measured in the surface waters of the northeastern Pacific during the study period.The atmospheric SO₂ concentrations always increased with altitude from <0.16–0.25 to 0.44–1.31 nmol m^–3 (STP). The nonsea-salt sulfate (ns-SO₄ ^2–) concentrations decreased with altitude in the boundary layer and increased again in the free troposphere. These data suggest that, at least under the conditions prevailing during our flights, the production of SO₂ and nss-SO₄ ^2– from DMS oxidation was significant only within the boundary layer and that transport from Asia dominated the sulfur cycle in the free troposphere. The existence of a sea-salt inversion layer was reflected in the profiles of those aerosol components, e.g., Na⁺ and NO₃ ^–, which were predominantly present as coarse particles. Our results show that long-range transport at mid-tropospheric levels plays an important role in determining the chemical composition of the atmosphere even in apparently remote northern hemispheric regions.     

Resources of the ionized atmosphere as an aerosol source

The potential resources on the ion-stimulated syntheses effects of aerosol particles of lower troposphere in test sites in the arctic, mountain, arid and forest areas as the function of irradiation time and gas-precursor concentration were experimentally and theoretically evaluated. The dust-free outdoor air was irradiated with an ionization current of 10^− 6 A by α-rays from isotope ²³⁹Pu. The total output of radiolytic aerosols (RA) with a diameter of 3–1000 nm was found to be 0.05–0.1 molecules per 1 eV of absorbed radiation, while the physical upper limit is 0.25–0.4 molecules/eV. In an interval of exposition time from 6 to 800 s (adsorbed energy is 3 · 10¹²–10¹⁴ eV/cm³) the RA mass concentration at different sites was increased from 1–10 to 50–500 μg/m³. According to the liquid chromatography data the major RA material is the H₂O/HNO₃ solution with acid concentration  25%. The used physical model presents new aerosols as a product from small and intermediate ion association through formation of neutral clusters and describes adequately some of the peculiarities in field experiment data. Introducing SO₂, NH₃, and also hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acid vapours with concentration 0.1–1 mg/m³ in the irradiated air stimulated an increase of mass aerosol concentration by a factor of 8–30. The mean size also decreased by a factor of 3–5. These facts allowed us to expect that the chemical composition of radiolytic aerosols generated in outdoor air would noticeably differ after addition of the gas-precursors.     

Carbon for Farmers: Assessing the Potential for Soil Carbon Sequestration in the Old Peanut Basin of Senegal

Carbon sequestration in soil organic matter of degraded Sahelian agro-ecosystems could play a significant role in the global carbon (C) uptake through terrestrial sinks while, simultaneously, contributing to sustainable agriculture and desertification control. The paper documents the results of a two-year pilot project in Senegal assessing real project opportunities with main emphasis on the West-Central Agricultural Region (Old Peanut Basin). Current total system C content in this region, calculated on the basis of in situ soil and biomass carbon measurements, amounted to 28 t ha^–1 with 11 t C ha^–1 in soils (0–20 cm) and 6.3 t C ha^–1 in trees. Potential changes in soil C, simulated with CENTURY for a 25-year period, ranged from –0.13 t C ha^–1 yr^–1 under poor management to +0.43 t C ha^–1 yr^–1 under optimum agricultural intensification. Simulated changes in crop yields varied from –62% to +200% under worst and best management scenarios respectively. Best management practices that generate the highest sequestration rates are economically not feasible for the majority of local smallholders, unless considerable financial support is provided. Especially when applied on a larger scale, such packages risk to undermine local, opportunistic management regimes and, in the long run, also the beneficiaries capacity to successfully adapt to their constantly changing environment.     

Carbon for Farmers: Assessing the Potential for Soil Carbon Sequestration in the Old Peanut Basin of Senegal

Carbon sequestration in soil organic matter of degraded Sahelian agro-ecosystems could play a significant role in the global carbon (C) uptake through terrestrial sinks while, simultaneously, contributing to sustainable agriculture and desertification control. The paper documents the results of a two-year pilot project in Senegal assessing real project opportunities with main emphasis on the West-Central Agricultural Region (Old Peanut Basin). Current total system C content in this region, calculated on the basis of in situ soil and biomass carbon measurements, amounted to 28 t ha^–1 with 11 t C ha^–1 in soils (0–20 cm) and 6.3 t C ha^–1 in trees. Potential changes in soil C, simulated with CENTURY for a 25-year period, ranged from –0.13 t C ha^–1 yr^–1 under poor management to +0.43 t C ha^–1 yr^–1 under optimum agricultural intensification. Simulated changes in crop yields varied from –62% to +200% under worst and best management scenarios respectively. Best management practices that generate the highest sequestration rates are economically not feasible for the majority of local smallholders, unless considerable financial support is provided. Especially when applied on a larger scale, such packages risk to undermine local, opportunistic management regimes and, in the long run, also the beneficiaries capacity to successfully adapt to their constantly changing environment.