Seismic Response Analysis of Pile Foundations

A quasi-3D continuum method is presented for the dynamic nonlinear effective stress analysis of pile foundation under earthquake excitation. The method was validated using data from centrifuge tests on single piles and pile groups in liquefiable soils conducted at the University of California at Davis. Some results from this validation studies are presented. The API approach to pile response using p–y curves was evaluated using the quasi-3D method and the results from simulated earthquake tests on a model pile in a centrifuge. The recommended API stiffnesses appear to be much too high for seismic response analysis under strong shaking, but give very good estimates of elastic response.     

沉箱加桩复合基础地震响应离心试验

针对沉箱加桩复合基础地震响应问题开展动力离心试验研究。采用砂质粉土作为地基土,上部结构简化为质点和柱体,基础类型包括单桩、沉箱、沉箱加桩复合基础,利用层状剪切模型箱消除边界反射,以上海人工中波为输入波,在50 g离心加速度场下进行水平地震试验。根据基础形式的不同进行3组试验,试验结果表明：对于刚度较小的土,地震波向上传播过程中具有加速度衰减的特征;沉箱底部加桩对于降低基础和结构地震响应有积极的效果,有利于增强其抗震能力;地表、基础、结构的地震响应频率特性各不相同,这取决于其各自不同的自振特性;土与基础、基础与结构之间均会发生地震相互作用,但只有与相互作用对象自振频率均较接近的地震频域分量才能引起明显的相互作用。     

Seismic hazard evaluation for dams in northern Colorado, U.S.A.

A seismic hazard evaluation for three dams in the Rocky Mountains of northern Colorado is based on a study of the historical seismicity. To model earthquake occurrence as a random process utilizing a maximum likelihood method, the catalog must exhibit random space-time characteristics. This was achieved using a declustering procedure and correction for completeness of recording. On the basis of the resulting a- and b-values, probabilistic epicentral distances for a 2 × 10^–5 annual probability were calculated. For a random earthquake of magnitude M _L 6.0–6.5, this distance is 15 km. Suggested ground motion parameters were estimated using a probabilistic seismic hazard analysis. Critical peak horizontal accelerations at the dams are 0.22g if median values are assumed and 0.39g if variable attenuation and seismicity rates are taken into account. For structural analysis of the dams, synthetic acceleration time series were calculated to match the empirical response spectra. In addition, existing horizontal strong motion records from two Mammoth Lakes, California earthquakes were selected and scaled to fit the target horizontal acceleration response spectra.     

Comparison of the pseudo-static and dynamic behaviour of gravity retaining walls

Summary Pseudo-static and dynamic non-linear finite element analyses have been performed to assess the dynamic behaviour of gravity retaining walls subjected to horizontal earthquake loading. In the pseudo-static analysis, the peak ground acceleration is converted into a pseudo-static inertia force and applied as a horizontal incremental gravity load. In the dynamic analysis, an actual measured earthquake acceleration time history has been scaled to provide peak ground acceleration values of 0.1 g and 0.3 g. Good agreement is obtained between the pseudo-static analysis and analytical methods for the calculation of the active coefficient of earth pressure. However, the results from the dynamic analysis require careful interpretation. In the pseudo-static analysis, the increase in the point of application of the resultant active force with the horizontal earthquake coefficient k _h from the one-third point to the mid-height of the wall is clearly observed. In the dynamic analysis, the variation in the point of application is shown to be a function of the type of wall deformation. Both finite element analyses indicate the importance of determining the magnitude of the predicted displacements when assessing the behaviour of the wall to seismic loading.     

Quantifying the role of sandy–silty sediments in generating slope failures during earthquakes: example from the Algerian margin

The Algerian margin is a seismically active region, where during the last century, several large magnitude earthquakes took place. This study combines geotechnical and sedimentological data with numerical modelling to quantitatively assess the present-day slope stability of the Algerian margin. Geotechnical laboratory tests, such as cyclic triaxial tests, oedometric tests and vane shear tests were carried out on sediment cores collected on the study area. The liquefaction potential of a sediment column located about 30 km from the Boumerdès earthquake epicentre of 21st May 2003 was evaluated theoretically for an earthquake of M _w  = 6.8. We show that thin sand and silt beds such as those described on recovered sediment cores are the main cause of sediment deformation and liquefaction during earthquakes. Numerical calculations showed that the slope failure may occur during an earthquake characterised by a PGA in excess of 0.1g, and also that, under a PGA of 0.2g liquefaction could be triggered in shallow silty–sandy deposits. Moreover, comparison of the predicted slope failure with failure geometries inferred from seafloor morphology showed that earthquakes and subsequent mass movements could explain the present-day morphology of the study area.     

Compaction of granular soils by uniform vibration equivalent to vibrodriving of piles

Summary A programme of laboratory tests was undertaken to identify the volume reduction of a range of granular soils in response to uniform vibration. The purpose of the tests was to quantify the potential compaction settlement of granular soils due to vibrations typical of those experienced when sheet or bearing piles are installed or extracted by vibrodriver. The vibrations in soils within 2–20 m of a vibrodriven pile are well defined as sinusoidal, at the frequency of the vibrodriver, and typically in the range of 1.0g down to 0.02g (whereg=gravitational acceleration). Thein-situ conditions were replicated in the laboratory by vibration of a Rowe cell containing a soil sample. This allowed control of stresses before and during vibration. Tests were conducted on nine granular soils, ranging from uniform Leighton Buzzard sands to a sandy fine-to-medium gravel. Soil samples were prepared at minimum relative density, generally in the saturated state, but also dry and partly saturated. Each sample was consolidated at a selected effective stress of between 10 and 100 kPa. It was then vibrated vertically at increments of controlled acceleration, under conditions of free drainage and maintained confining stress. Reduction in sample thickness was measured continuously. Results showed that even in a small, drained, sample the full volume reduction was reached only after many minutes, although the early response was more rapid. The trends of results showed that: increased surcharge pressure reduced the subsequent vibratory compaction; well-graded soils showed greater compaction than more uniform sands; compaction increased markedly when acceleration exceeded 1 g; saturated soils showed larger compaction than dry and partially saturated soils; compaction was influenced little by frequency, although rate of compaction reduced with frequency increase.     

Liquefaction hazard mapping at the town of Edessa,Northern Greece

The town of Edessa is located on Northern Greece at a region that is characterized as low seismicity zone due to the fact that few moderate events of M < 6 occurred during the last century. According to the Greek Seismic Code, the expected acceleration having a 10% probability of being exceeded in 50 years is equal to 0.16g. However, an amplification of ground motion is likely to occur due the local geology that is consisted of Holocene fluvio-torrential deposits. The basic aim of this paper is to evaluate the site amplification due to geological conditions and to assess the liquefaction hazard. In order to achieve this, 1-D site response analyses were performed. The data that were employed for the construction of the numerical models have been collected from borings with standard penetrations tests (SPT) that were drilled for construction purposes. Afterward, the liquefaction potential of the subsoil layers was evaluated taking into consideration two seismic scenarios. The first scenario was based on the seismic parameters, earthquake magnitude and PGA, assigned by the Greek Seismic Code. On the second seismic model, we employed the values of acceleration, resulted from the 1-D analyses and the earthquake magnitude as it was defined by the Greek Seismic Code. In order to compile the liquefaction hazard maps, we initially estimated the liquefaction potential index (LPI) of the soil columns using the parameters provided by SPT, for both seismic loadings, and afterward we correlated these values with the proposed classification of the severity of liquefaction-induced deformations. In addition, having computed the value of probability based on the LPI, liquefaction manifestations probability maps were compiled for both scenarios. The result of this study was that liquefaction-induced ground disruptions are likely to occur at the center of the city, among the branches of Voda River, only when the amplified values of acceleration are taken into account to the computation of liquefaction potential.     

The effect of backfill cohesion on seismic response of cantilever retaining walls using fully dynamic analysis

The analyses of retaining walls in California showed many backfills are coarse material with some cohesion. In this investigation, seismic response of cantilever retaining walls, backfilled with dirty sandy materials with up to 30 kPa cohesion, is evaluated using fully dynamic analysis. The numerical simulation procedure is first validated using reported centrifuge test results. The validated methodology is then used to investigate the effects of three earthquake ground motions including Kobe, Loma Prieta, and Chi-Chi on seismic response of retaining walls. In addition, the input peak ground acceleration values are varied to consider a wide range of earthquake acceleration intensity.     

地震作用下自由场中饱和砂土的应力-应变推导

水平自由场地震响应分析是岩土地震工程实践的重要内容之一。利用香港科技大学土工离心机上的双向振动台,进行了饱和砂土自由场在水平双向地震作用下的动力模型试验。根据应力和应变的定义以及达朗贝尔原理,由试验观测的土体加速度、位移和孔隙水压力数据直接推导得到不同深度处砂土的应力和应变,揭示了振动过程中饱和砂土的应力路径和应力-应变关系演化过程,以及与超静孔隙水压力发展的联系。     

Improved performance-based seismic coefficient for gravity-type quay walls based on centrifuge test results

Verifying the seismic performance of port structures when the force balance limit is exceeded is important for the performance-based seismic design of gravity-type quay walls. Over the last three decades, performance verification methods have been developed that consider the effects of the design earthquake motion, geotechnical conditions, and structural details on the deformation of a quay wall to accurately predict earthquake-induced damage. In this study, representative performance verification methods (i.e., simplified dynamic analysis methods extending from the Newmark sliding block method and performance-based seismic coefficients developed in Japan) were quantitatively assessed with actual cases of earthquake-damaged quay walls and the results of dynamic centrifuge tests previously conducted under various conditions (i.e., different wall heights, earthquake motions and the thickness of subsoil). The dynamic centrifuge test results suggested directions for improving the performance-based seismic coefficients of the representative methods, while their field applicability and reliability were confirmed according to the actual earthquake records.

     

离心模拟技术中运动学的物理意义

研究离心模拟中的运动学,有助于提高对离心模型试验结果的认识。笔者推导了描述离心模型中任一质点运动的整体速度和加速度的数学表达式。按照牛顿第二定律,在离心模拟中的加速度是连接运动学与动力学的重要因素。笔者描述了整体加速度表达式中各项的物理意义,指出了离心机稳定运转时的向心加速度、由角加速度效应引起的切向加速度、互补(复合向心)加速度分量、径向(原型的竖向)、环向和轴向(原型的两个水平方向)振动效应以及离心机臂伸长效应对整体加速度的贡献。分析结果表明,对于单向振动的动力离心模拟试验,选轴向(平行于转轴)为振动方向便于理解试验结果。另外,仔细检查了Schofield[1]对离心模拟中运动学的描述并发现其混淆之处。     

基于动力离心试验的软基尾矿库地震响应研究

基于离心机振动台,分别针对典型软基尾黏土尾矿库及加高扩容后的尾矿库开展了动力离心模型试验,重点探究了加速度分布规律、软土及尾矿内部孔压变化规律以及“软基?库内尾矿?尾矿坝”系统的变形规律等内容。试验结果表明：软基对地震动的放大效应较为微弱,而坝体加速度沿高程逐渐放大,高层子坝加速度响应最为强烈,加高扩容后的现坝顶加速度响应可达原坝顶的2.2倍;地震作用下软土与库内尾矿内部均会产生一定的孔压增量,但未达到液化状态。地震动强度、软基及库内尾矿的固结状态对尾矿库的变形模式影响较大。当固结不充分时,在强震作用下易发生尾矿的水平滑移,进而造成坝顶及下游软土隆起。在固结较为充分且地震动强度较弱的情况下,变形模式以震陷为主。该试验成果将为此类尾矿库的动力稳定分析及抗震加固设计提供一定参考。     

Three‐dimensional nonlinear finite element analysis of pile groups in saturated porous media using a new transmitting boundary

The dynamic behaviour of pile groups subjected to an earthquake base shaking is analysed. An analysis is formulated in the time domain and the effects of material nonlinearity of soil, pile–soil–pile kinematic interaction and the superstructure–foundation inertial interaction on seismic response are investigated. Prediction of response of pile group–soil system during a large earthquake requires consideration of various aspects such as the nonlinear and elasto‐plastic behaviour of soil, pore water pressure generation in soil, radiation of energy away from the pile, etc. A fully explicit dynamic finite element scheme is developed for saturated porous media, based on the extension of the original formulation by Biot having solid displacement (u) and relative fluid displacement (w) as primary variables (u–w formulation). All linear relative fluid acceleration terms are included in this formulation. A new three‐dimensional transmitting boundary that was developed in cartesian co‐ordinate system for dynamic response analysis of fluid‐saturated porous media is implemented to avoid wave reflections towards the structure. In contrast to traditional methods, this boundary is able to absorb surface waves as well as body waves. The pile–soil interaction problem is analysed and it is shown that the results from the fully coupled procedure, using the advanced transmitting boundary, compare reasonably well with centrifuge data. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Centrifuge model test study on pile reinforcement behavior of cohesive soil slopes under earthquake conditions

In this study, dynamic centrifuge model tests were conducted to investigate the dynamic response of cohesive soil slopes with the use of stabilizing piles during an earthquake. The behavior of the pile reinforcement was analyzed based on the obtained deformation over the entire slope through image-based measurement, and the behavior of the slope was compared to that of an unreinforced slope. The piles significantly increased the stability of the slope and reduced its deformation during an earthquake. The bending moment of the piles exhibited a nearly triangular distribution due to the earthquake. The acceleration response of the slope increased with increasing elevation, and the displacement accumulated apparently irreversibly over the course of the earthquake. The piles significantly affected the deformation of the slope in a certain area, the boundary of which was defined using a continuous surface. A strain analysis of the slope demonstrated that the piles had a significant effect on the reduction in the deformation of the slope in their vicinities, and this effect expanded upward along the slope and arrested the possible slip surface that would have occurred in an unreinforced slope. Several influencing factors were simulated in the tests, and observation of these factors demonstrated that the dynamic response of the pile-reinforced slope was affected by the pile spacing, pile location, slope gradient, and input earthquake to varying extent.     

Physical and Numerical Modeling of Seismic Soil-Structure Interaction in Layered Soils

The structural response of buildings subjected to seismic loads is affected by local site conditions and the interaction between the structure and the supporting soil media. Seismic centrifuge model tests were conducted on two layered clay soil profiles at 80 g field to investigate soil-structure interaction and dynamic response of foundation. Several earthquake-like shaking events were applied to the models using an electro-hydraulic shaking table to simulate linear and nonlinear soil behavior. Results showed that the foundation input motion was significantly amplified in both models, especially for weak earthquake motions. Seismic soil-structure interaction was found to have an important effect on structure response by increasing the amplification of foundation input motion. A 3D finite difference numerical model was also developed to simulate the response of centrifuge model tests and study the parameters that affect the characteristics of earthquake at the base of the structure. The results indicated that the stiffness and stratification of the soil profiles had a significant effect on modifying the foundation input motion.     

Wave absorbing-boundary method in seismic centrifuge simulation of vertical free-field ground motion

In this paper, an evaluation of the method of experimental seismic simulation of vertical free-field ground motion by wave-absorbing boundary and centrifuge modeling is presented. By means of a large soil container with Ductseal lining and an in-box shake-table system, a series of seismic tests on a sand stratum model of uniform density and a large width-to-depth ratio was conducted at multiple g-levels. With a focus on the vertical motion produced, the time-domain data was processed using the transfer function approach. By examining the measured resonant regimes for the vertical mode as a function of the g-level or length scale over the frequency spectrum, the capability of the Ductseal boundary approach in simulating vertical free-field motions in one-dimensional inhomogeneous site response theory is highlighted. In seeking a comprehensive basis of synthesis for the modeling methodology, the benefits of using the three-dimensional elastodynamic model in the interpretation of the vertical free-field measurements are demonstrated.     

Experimental evaluation of the performance of earth levees deteriorated by wildlife activities

In this study, an earth levee model is constructed to investigate the impact of animal burrows on the integrity and performance of earthen structures. A series of centrifuge experiments are conducted on homogenous scaled-down 1H:1V levee models built from the natural Kasama soil. Both intact and deteriorated models were subject to a 35g acceleration level. Invasive animal intrusions were introduced in the form of horizontal array of idealized cylindrical burrows at the mid-height of the levee. The water level was gradually increased during the centrifuge flight, and the response of the levee was monitored throughout the test. Pore pressures were recorded using pressure transducers placed at preselected locations within the model. Surface displacements were measured using laser LVDTs and supplemented with three digital cameras for tracking the overall deformation pattern of the levee model. A summary of the test procedure and selected results is presented herewith. The observed deformation mechanism due to the presence of animal burrows is also described. As compared with the intact levee, the presence of burrows is found to alter the pattern of the water flow through the deteriorated levee structure—leading to a notable increase in the exit hydraulic gradient, internal erosion, and subsequently slope failure.     

小型土石坝加密抗液化离心机振动台试验研究

地震作用下土石坝液化易导致坝坡失稳滑移等严重后果,加密法是常用的抗液化手段之一。针对坝趾压重与坝壳翻压两种坝身加密加固方法,开展了离心机振动台试验,分析了不同加密型抗液化处理的小型土石坝坝坡地震响应规律。试验结果表明,由于高水头作用下坝坡底部土体软化,未处理坝坡加速度放大系数沿高程先减小后增大,而加密坝坡加速度放大系数沿高程逐渐增大,且坝坡表面处加速度存在表面放大现象。坝趾压重和坝壳翻压提高了坝身有效应力,降低地震产生的超静孔压比,有效防止土体液化。未处理坝坡在峰值加速度为0.24g地震作用下即发生坝趾液化现象,而加密坝坡在峰值加速度为0.24g和0.45g下均未发生液化。未处理坝坡整体侧向位移大,加密处理后,在峰值加速度为0.24g下坝坡整体表现为竖向位移。坝趾压重区坝趾水平位移明显减小,坝壳翻压区坡顶沉降减小了50%。试验结果验证了坝趾压重和坝壳翻压的抗液化效果,为小型土石坝抗震加固设计提供了参考。     

Convex model for gross domestic product-based dynamic earthquake loss assessment method

Ground motion intensity was presented as Modified Mercalli Intensity in gross domestic product (GDP)-based earthquake loss assessment method, and the variable uncertainties and the variation of GDP with time were neglected. In this study, the hazard-loss/GDP relation was determined based on peak ground acceleration (PGA), and the uncertainties of PGA and the hazard-loss/GDP relation were modeled with the Envelope Bound Convex Model and the curves of GDP with time were also derived. Finally, the earthquake loss of Ningbo city was estimated and disaggregated,and sensitivity of uncertain variables was investigated. The results show that the loss with Chen method locates in the lower half intervals of convex analysis results, and the most loss is from frequent earthquake. Hazard-Loss/GDP relation gives the most contribution to loss uncertainty, and the reminder sequence of sensitivity is the annual occurrence rate v, the b value and the upper bound magnitude M _u .     

City of Bingöl in May 2003: Assessment of strong ground motion records

The main shock of Bingöl earthquake (M _W = 6.4) recorded by six accelerometers in the area occurred at 03:27 local time on May 1, 2003. The largest acceleration value of north–south component was recorded as 545.5 cm/s² at the nearest station which it is 12 km away from the epicenter of earthquake. Especially, 0.15 s short period was observed when high spectral acceleration value occurred. An acceleration value greater than 50 gal was recorded at the BNG (Bingöl) station and structural damage occurred within 6.5 s was very important for the near source and strong ground motion seismology. The recorded peak acceleration values were greater than the estimated empirical acceleration values. However, the structural damage was not as high and widespread as expected. This occurrence was explained by considering the factors of earthquake source, frequency content, effective duration, effective acceleration value, local soil conditions, rupture direction and attenuation.