Frequency domain electromagnetic and ground penetrating radar investigation of ephemeral streams: case study near the Southern High Plains,Texas

A frequency domain electromagnetic (FDEM) and ground penetrating radar (GPR) study was conducted on an ephemeral stream in north-central Texas to determine if FDEM and GPR measurements can be combined to determine the electrical characteristics of current and ancient stream channels. GPR data were collected at several frequencies to image sedimentary structures of different scale lengths, and to determine the formation porosity and water content of stream sediments. FDEM measurements were collected using Geonics EM31 and EM34 loop–loop instruments on a profile along the current stream channel and five profiles perpendicular to the channel. The results indicate that the greater spatial resolution of the EM31 mapped the current and possible ancient channels better than the EM34, however, the EM34 provided depth information on the formations underlying the channel sediments that the EM31 could not image. GPR measurements taken along a point bar deposit with 200, 100 and 25 MHz antennae indicated that the higher frequency antenna better resolved channel structures including laminar bedding, trough scours and cross-bedding, however, lower frequency antenna (25 MHz) imaged sedimentary structures within the underlying channel sediments. Common midpoint GPR measurements collected along the point bar deposit were used to estimate the sediment formation porosity (26%) and the water content, during a dry period, of the unsaturated (12%) and saturated (26 or 100% of the pore space) sediments. The combined results indicated that the FDEM data should be collected first because of the speed and ease of measurements. The FDEM data (especially the EM31) pointed to the locations of possible sedimentary structures, which can then be resolved by using different frequency GPR measurements.     

Exploration of an alluvial aquifer in Oman by time-domain electromagnetic sounding

 One-third of the population of Oman depends upon groundwater extracted from the alluvium of the Batinah Plain, on the coast of the Gulf of Oman. Deep geophysical exploration techniques were used to determine the depth and nature of the alluvium and the boundaries of the aquifer. The base and structural controls of the alluvial basin at its contact with Tertiary marine sediments and Cretaceous ophiolite were mapped with seismic reflection data, recorded originally for oil exploration. The base of the alluvium dips northward from the foothills of the Northern Oman Mountains, reaching a maximum depth of 2000 m at the coast. The varying facies of the alluvium are grossly characterised by different, overlapping ranges of electrical resistivity, depending largely on the clay content and degree of cementation. Resistivities near the coast are reduced by saline intrusion. These variations of resistivity were mapped with time-domain electromagnetic sounding along 400 km of profile, to distinguish among the three zones of the alluvial aquifer. The wedge of saline intrusion was also delineated, up to 10 km from the coast. The thickness of the saturated gravel aquifer ranges from 20–160 m in an area greater than 600 km². Received, April 1997 · Revised, January 1998 · Accepted, April 1998     

Groundwater resources evaluation in calcareous limestone using geoelectrical and VLF-EM surveys (El Salloum Basin,Egypt)

Understanding and developing groundwater resources in arid regions such as El Salloum basin, along the northwestern coast of Egypt, remains a challenging issue. One-dimensional (1D) electrical sounding (ES), two-dimensional (2D) electrical resistivity imaging (ERI), and very low frequency electromagnetic (VLF-EM) measurements were used to investigate the hydrogeological framework of El Salloum basin with the aim of determining the potential for extraction of potable water. 1D resistivity sounding models were used to delineate geoelectric sections and water-bearing layers. 2D ERI highlighted decreases in resistivity with depth, attributed to clay-rich limestone combined with seawater intrusion towards the coast. A depth of investigation (DOI) index was used to constrain the information content of the images at depths up to 100 m. The VLF-EM survey identified likely faults/fractured zones across the study area. A combined analysis of the datasets of the 1D ES, 2D ERI, and VLF-EM methods identified potential zones of groundwater, the extent of seawater intrusion, and major hydrogeological structures (fracture zones) in El Salloum basin. The equivalent geologic layers suggest that the main aquifer in the basin is the fractured chalky limestone middle Miocene) south of the coastal plain of the study area. Sites likely to provide significant volumes of potable water were identified based on relatively high resistivity and thickness of laterally extensive layers. The most promising locations for drilling productive wells are in the south and southeastern parts of the region, where the potential for potable groundwater increases substantially.

     

Geophysical-geochemical investigation of fire-prone landfills

This paper deals with the integration of electrical resistivity tomography and geochemical methods for studying four different fire-prone landfills. Landfill gas composition (CH₄, H₂S, O₂, CO, CO₂) and subsurface temperature were measured with the constant net 50 × 50 m from the depth 10–60 cm. 28 electrical resistivity tomography lines were surveyed, while Wenner and Sclumberger electrode arrays were employed for all measurements. At the studied sites the landfill gas and temperature measurements mapped gas and temperature anomalies over underground fire sources. 2D electrical resistivity tomography lines, performed over these anomalies, showed these fire sources as high-resistivity zones. The joint employment of the electrical imaging and geochemical survey seems to be a useful tool in carrying out diagnostic investigations at fire-prone landfills.     

Geophysical imaging of municipal solid waste contaminant pathways

Surface electrical and electromagnetic surveys were conducted on top of a solid waste facility in Unguwan Dosa, Kaduna State, Northwest Nigeria. The aim of the geophysical survey was to detect vertical and subvertical fractures that may provide pathways for groundwater and contaminant transport. Results from the 2D electrical resistivity imaging showed vertical and subvertical contacts overlain by 6–10 m thick overburden. Quantitative interpretation of the VLF-EM data correlates well with the results of the 2D resistivity imaging delineating the vertical and subvertical contacts as good and weak conductors (fractures zones) with resistivity values of 40–220 and 300–420 Ω m, respectively. Azimuthal Schlumberger VES measurements yield apparent anisotropy values ranging from 1.01 to 1.47 for electrode spacings of 1–45 m with the highest value recorded at spacing of 2 m. However, azimuthal variations at large spacings (30–45 m) showed no fracture anisotropy due possibly to the array’s low sensitivity to anisotropy at these spacings. The result of the study showed that pollutants in the leachate can reach and contaminate the groundwater. Therefore, urgency for leachate treatment at this site is recommended to prevent contamination of groundwater.     

The use of vertical electrical sounding resistivity method for the location of low salinity groundwater for irrigation in Chaj and Rachna Doabs

A geoelectrical resistivity survey using vertical electrical sounding (VES) was conducted at Chaj Doab (land between rivers Jhelum and Chenab, Pakistan) and Rachna Doab (land between rivers Chenab and Ravi, Pakistan), with the objective of investigating groundwater conditions. A total of 90 sites were selected with 43 sites in Chaj and 47 sites in Rachna Doabs. The resistivity meter (ABEM Terrameter SAS 4000, Sweden) was used to collect the VES data by employing a Schlumberger electrode configuration, with half current electrode spacings (AB/2) ranging from 2 to 180 m and the potential electrode (MN) from 1 to 40 m. The field data were interpreted using the Interpex IX1D computer software and the resistivity versus depth models for each location was estimated. The outputs of subsurface layers with resistivities and thickness presented in contour maps and 3-D views by using SURFER software were created. A total of 102 groundwater samples from nearby hydrowells at different depths were collected to develop a correlation between the aquifer resistivity of VES and the electrical conductivity (EC) of the groundwater and to confirm the resulted geophysical resistivity models. From the correlation developed, it was observed that the groundwater salinity in the aquifer may be considered low and so safe for irrigation if resistivity >45 Ω m, and marginally fit for irrigation having resistivity between 25 and 45 Ω m. The study area has resistivities from 3.9 to 2,222 Ω m at the top of the unsaturated layer, between 1.21 and 171 Ω m, in the shallow aquifers, and 0.14–152 Ω m in the deep aquifers of the study area. The results indicate that the quality of groundwater is better near the rivers and in the shallow layers compared to the deep layers.     

Delineation of saltwater intrusion into the freshwater aquifer of Lekki Peninsula,Lagos, Nigeria

Recently, the deterioration of water quality in the coastal zones of Lekki Peninsula area of Lagos due to saltwater infiltration into the freshwater aquifer has become a major concern. With the aim of providing valuable information on the hydrogeologic system of the aquifers, the subsurface lithology and delineating the groundwater salinity, vertical electrical resistivity (VES) sounding survey was carried out utilizing surface Schlumberger electrode arrays, and electrode spacing varying between 1 and 150 m. The DC resistivity surveys revealed significant variations in subsurface resistivity. Also, the VES resistivity curves showed a dominant trend of decreasing resistivity with depth (thus increasing salinity). In general, the presence of four distinct resistivity zones were delineated viz.: the unconsolidated dry sand (A) having resistivity values ranging between 125 and 1,028 Ωm represent the first layer; the fresh water-saturated soil (zone B) having resistivity values which correspond to 32–256 Ωm is the second layer; the third layer (zone C) is interpreted as the mixing (transition) zone of fresh with brackish groundwater. The resistivity of this layer ranges from 4 to 32 Ωm; while layer four (zone D) is characterized with resistivities values generally below 4 Ωm reflecting an aquifer possibly containing brine. The rock matrix, salinity and water saturation are the major factors controlling the resistivity of the formation. Moreover, this investigation shows that saline water intrusion into the aquifers can be accurately mapped using surface DC resistivity method.     

Electric structure of the Copahue Volcano (Neuquén Province,Argentina), from magnetotelluric soundings: 1D and 2D modellings

Four magnetotelluric soundings were carried out in 1993 in the region of the Copahue active volcano located at the border between Chile and Argentina (37°45′S, 71°18′W). Three soundings were located inside the caldera of the ancient stratovolcano (east of Copahue) and the fourth outside it. The soundings inside the caldera were situated at about 6, 11, and 14 km from the volcano. Digital data were obtained covering the range of periods from 1 sec to 10,000 sec using induction coils and a flux-gate magnetometer to obtain the magnetic data and Cu-SO₄Cu electrodes for electric field measurements. The apparent resistivity curves corresponding to principal directions were analyzed in conjunction with the geological background in order to eliminate distortion — which is very important in this hot volcanic region. Then, 1D modellings were performed using the “normal” curves — i.e., curves without distortions. Using the apparent resistivity curves with distortions, 2D modelling was also performed along a profile perpendicular to the regional tectonic trend suggested by MT soundings into the caldera. Results show low resistivity values of about 3-15 Ωm between 9 km to 20 km depth in the crust, suggesting high temperatures, with minimum values of about 700°C with partially melted zones in the upper crust between 9 km to 20 km depth under the caldera. The presence of a possible sulphide-carbonaceous layer (SC layer) in the upper basement could play an important role in lowering the electrical resistivities because of its high electronic conductivity.     

Geoarchaeological prospection of a medieval manor in the dutch polders using an electromagnetic induction sensor in combination with soil augerings

In archaeological prospection, geophysical sensors are increasingly being used to locate buried remains within their natural context. To cover a large area in sufficient detail, an electromagnetic induction sensor can be very useful, measuring simultaneously the electrical conductivity and the magnetic susceptibility of the soil (e.g., Geonics EM38DD). In this study, an 8 ha field containing a Medieval manor was mapped in a submeter resolution, using a mobile sensor configuration equipped with a GPS. As different soil features can yield analogous responses, the interpretation of geophysical maps can be ambiguous. Therefore, soil auger observations were laid out along two perpendicular transects to provide vertical profiles across the sensor measurements. This information greatly enhanced the interpretation of the anomalies obtained by the sensor. Both natural and anthropogenic features were delineated, which clearly presented a moated site along a former tidal channel. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Delineation of shallow resistivity structure in the city of Burdur,SW Turkey by vertical electrical sounding measurements

The city of Burdur, which is built on an alluvium aquifer, is located in one of the most seismically active zones in southwestern Turkey. The soil properties in the study site are characterized by unconsolidated and water-saturated sediments including silty, clayey and sandy units, and shallow groundwater level is the other characteristic of the site. Thus, the city is under soil liquefaction risk during a large earthquake. A resistivity survey including 189 vertical electrical sounding (VES) measurements was carried out in 2000 as part of a multi-disciplinary project aiming to investigate settlement properties in Burdur city and its vicinity. In the present study, the VES data acquired by using a Schlumberger array were re-processed with 1D and 2D inversion techniques to determine liquefaction potential in the study site. The results of some 1D interpretations were compared to the data from several wells drilled during the project. Also, the groundwater level map that was previously obtained by hydrological studies was extended toward north by using the resistivity data. 2D least-squares inversions were performed along nine VES profiles. This provided very useful information on vertical and horizontal extends of geologic units and water content in the subsurface. The study area is characterized by low resistivity distribution (<150 Ωm) originating from high fluid content in the subsurface. Lower resistivity (3–30 Ωm) is associated with the Quaternary and the Tertiary lacustrine sediments while relatively high resistivity (40–150 Ωm) is related to the Quaternary alluvial cone deposits. This study has also shown that the resistivity measurements are useful in the estimation of liquefaction risk in a site by providing information on the groundwater level and the fluid content in the subsurface. Based on this, we obtained a liquefaction hazard map for the study area. The liquefaction potential was classified by considering the resistivity distributions from 2D inversion of the VES profiles, the types of the sediments and the extended groundwater level map. According to this map, the study area was characterized by high liquefaction hazard risk.     

Integrated application of 2D resistivity and electromagnetic methods to investigate a metallic-sulfide deposit in Soap Gulch,Montana. A case study

Geoelectrical methods involving electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), self-potential (SP), frequency domain electromagnetic (FDEM), and very low frequency (VLF) methods have been used to provide valuable information in locating a known sulfide ore body in Soap Gulch, Montana. The study develops basis of comparison for the geophysical techniques employed. Ranges of resistivity along the area have been established using interpreted ERT which can help to understand the subsurface distribution of sulfides in the area. A sulfide body was delineated from the survey area corresponding to anomalously low resistivity values on the ERT section, negative SP, and high apparent current density zone in VLF. Depth to the localized ore zone ranges approximately from 10 to 20 m. FDEM data reflect the conductivity distribution of the shallow subsurface (less than 6 m deep); hence, the delineated sulfide zone had minimal contribution to FDEM measurements. The results of the study show that SP, VLF, and ERT methods provide significant information in localizing ore bodies. The survey revealed that the resistivity values obtained from ERT profile corroborate the FDEM, SP, and VLF from the area.     

吊舱式直升机频率域电磁系统 在北京密云红光铁矿的勘查效果

新引进的IMPULSE吊舱式直升机频率域电磁、磁综合系统是新型的数字化宽带系统,通过分析该系统在北京密云红光铁矿进行的试验勘查结果,其中包括电磁、磁场的剖面和平面特征,以及其转换的视电阻率和电阻率深度断面特征,并与以往Tridem固定翼电磁系统所测量的结果进行对比,证实了IMPULSE系统比Tridem系统具有较好的分辨率和较大的勘探深度,在矿产和水文勘查中具有显著的勘查效果。     

Surface geophysical investigations of landslide at the Wiri area in southeastern Korea

A geophysical survey was undertaken at Wiri area of the Andong in southeastern Korea to delineate subsurface structure and to detect the fault zone, which affected the 1997 mountain–hill subsidence and subsequent road heaving initiated by the intense rainfall. Electrical resistivity methods of dipole–dipole array profiling and Schlumberger array sounding and seismic methods of refraction and reflection profiling were used to map a clay zone, which was regarded as the major factor for the landslide. The clay zone was identified in electrical resistivity and seismic sections as having low electrical resistivity (<100 Ωm) and low seismic velocity (<400 m/s), respectively. The clay zone detected by using geophysical methods is well correlated with its distribution from the trench and drill-core data. The results of the electrical and seismic surveys showed that slope subsidence was associated with the sliding of saturated clay along a fault plane trending NNW–SSE and dipping 10°–20° SW. However, the road heaving was caused by the slope movement of the saturated clay along a sub-vertical NNE-trending fault.     

粤北地区乳源-潮州MT剖面深部电性结构及地学意义

为了揭示粤北地区岩石圈深部结构、深大断裂性质及花岗岩分布规律等科学问题,布设了乳源-潮州宽频带大地电磁探测剖面。由二维反演得出的电性结构,讨论了粤北地区岩石圈导电性结构特点。沿剖面存在3个花岗岩分布区,呈现不同的类型,可能代表不同的成因模式。沿剖面划分3条北东向断裂带:吉安-四会断裂、赣江断裂于韶关东形成宽度近20km的低阻区域,其间形成断陷盆地;河源-邵武断裂带,其两侧发育壳幔高导层并发育壳幔混合型花岗岩,深部电性结构复杂,可能为壳幔剧烈作用的场所;丽水-海丰断裂带,控制了燕山晚期花岗岩的分布。韶关、连平之间和龙川、丰顺之间50～150km存在2个巨大的低阻体,可能是地幔物质底侵作用的"通道";且底侵方向指向连平和龙川之间的区域,由于底侵作用力贡献,发育了一系列的壳内和上地幔高导层。粤北地区岩石圈从西向东逐渐减薄,从100余km减薄到60km,反映了太平洋板块对欧亚板块的消减作用。潮州100km深度以下的中-低阻特征,推断为太平洋板块俯冲作用留下的"洋壳"物质。     

Hydraulic conductivity characterization of a karst recharge area using water injection tests and electrical resistivity logging

Water injection tests and electrical logging are particularly useful techniques in the characterization of geological media in engineering works. In this paper these techniques in conjunction with cracks measurements obtained from drilling cores, were used in the characterization of a singular location in a karst massif. The aim of our work is to determine the hydraulic characteristics of the investigated site, as well as to establish the relationship between the data obtained by the different techniques used. Thus, electrical resistivity records and fracture data were obtained from two boreholes of 100 and 120 m depth. Hydraulic conductivity was calculated from 25 low-pressure water injection tests (LPT) carried out at different depths in both boreholes. The relationship between hydraulic conductivity and fracture frequency was not very statististically significant (R²: 0.062–0.672; σ_est: 0.61–1.575). Conversely, electrical resistivity and hydraulic conductivity had a great relationship (R²: 0.725–0.935; σ_est: 0.159–0.738), so the electrical resistivity may be related to the functionality of the fractures. Finally, the LPT is shown as a very practical tool for determining the degree of the hydraulically interconnection with the surroundings, for establishing the hydraulic conductivity profile and for obtaining a measure of soil erosionability according to the significance of the fracture washing out processes recorded.     

Assessment of seawater mixing in a coastal aquifer by high resolution electrical resistivity tomography

Seawater intrusion is a major problem in urbanized coastal regions of India which is due to over exploitation of groundwater for various purposes. This study was carried out with the objective of assessing the zone of mixing between seawater and groundwater in the coastal aquifer in south of Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India using high resolution electrical resistivity tomography. High resolution electrical resistivity tomography was carried out in five profiles perpendicular to the sea using IRIS make SYSCAL Pro-96 system with 2.5 m or 5 m inter-electrode separation. The maximum length of the profile was 170 m which resulted in a depth of investigation of 28.7 m. The apparent resistivity measured in this area varies from 0.3 ohm-m to 30,000 ohm-m. The apparent resistivity of saturated zone decreases towards the sea, indicating the influence of seawater. This was also confirmed by measuring the electrical conductivity of groundwater, which gradually increases from 156 μS/cm to 3430 μS/cm towards the sea. Further, the concentration profiles of electrical conductivity, sodium, chloride and chloride / bicarbonate ratio are compared with the high resolution electrical resistivity tomography profile. The distance of influence of seawater is comparatively high in northern part than in southern part of the area. The high resolution electrical resistivity tomography was effectively used to determine the effect of seawater mixing with groundwater.     

天然气水合物开采过程甲烷气泄漏海床基高密度电阻率法监测效果模拟与分析

为实现天然气水合物开采过程沉积物内甲烷气泄漏过程有效监测,设计了一种海床基原位电学监测方法。为界定该方法对不同模式泄露甲烷气的探测能力,以南海神狐海域天然气水合物试采区为研究区,构建相应地质及电阻率模型,模拟利用设计电学系统对其进行监测,计算得到不同采集参数的电阻率剖面,并对其进行对比分析。研究结果表明：海水层会在探测剖面上某深度区间内形成层状低阻异常带,对该深度区间有效电信号形成压制。将该异常带顶界深度定义为系统有效探测深度后,发现该深度受电极距直接影响,10 m极距偶极装置有效探测深度约为50 m。电学探测剖面对有效探测深度内分布的层状和团状甲烷气聚集区、慢速甲烷气泄露区、沿断层泄露的甲烷气区具有良好反映能力,数据处理得到的相对电阻率剖面与电学探测剖面相比能更好地反映甲烷气聚集区边界。该监测方法能够实时监测含气区空间变化。     

青藏高原东南部地壳导电性结构与断裂构造特征——下察隅-昌都剖面大地电磁探测结果

根据2004年在青藏高原东南部完成的下察隅—昌都(1000线)宽频带大地电磁探测剖面数据研究高原东南部地壳导电性结构及断裂构造特征,这有助于推进印度与亚洲岩石圈碰撞、俯冲构造模式的研究。研究结果表明,沿剖面上地壳大范围分布的是规模不等的高阻体,电阻率大约在90～3000Ω.m,厚度由南向北增加,底界面的深度大约在5～30km变化。高阻层之下发现由不连续高导体构成的中地壳低阻层,其电阻率小于10Ω.m;其结构与青藏高原中、西部的壳幔高导体相似,但规模小得多,底面埋深也浅得多。沿剖面的上地壳存在多组规模不等、产状不同的横向电性梯度带或畸变带,它们反映了沿剖面地区地壳的断裂分布。通过与该区高精度重力资料对比,在重要的电性梯度带上,均存在布格重力低异常和负重力均衡异常。结合区域地质资料分析推断了嘉黎—然乌、班公—怒江和甲桑卡—赤布张错等主要断裂构造带的空间格局。     

A geological and hydrogeological assessment of the electrical conductivity information from the HiRES airborne geophysical survey of the Isle of Wight

A recent high resolution airborne geophysical survey across the Isle of Wight (IoW) and Lymington area has provided the first electromagnetic data across the relatively young geological formations characterising much of southern England. The multi-frequency data provide information on bulk electrical conductivity to depths of the order of 100 m. A GIS-based assessment of the electrical conductivity information in relation to bedrock geological classification has been conducted for the first time. The analysis uses over 104,000 measurements across onshore IoW and has established average and statistical properties as a function of bedrock geology. The average values are used to provide baseline maps of apparent electrical conductivity and the variation with depth (measured as a function of frequency). The average conductivity as a function of depth within the main aquifer units is summarised. The data indicate that the majority of the Palaeogene is characterised by values consistently in excess of 100 mS/m and with a surprisingly high degree of spatial heterogeneity. The youngest (Oligocene) Hamstead Member displays some strong edge effects and the largest localized values in conductivity. The central Upper Chalk is associated with the lowest observed conductivity values and mineral content and/or porosity appears to increase with increasing age. The large central outcrop of the Lower Greensand Group, Ferruginous Sand Formation provides persistently low (<30 mS/m) conductivity values which imply a relatively uniform distribution of clean sand content. Non-geological (e.g. environmental) responses are contained within the data set and examples of these in relation to a closed municipal landfill and an area of potential coastal saline intrusion are discussed. In the south, the Gault clay/mudstone of the Early Cretaceous appears as a distinctive conductive unit. Cross sectional modelling of the data has been undertaken across the aquifer units of the Southern Downs. The results indicate that the Gault Formation, acting as an aquitard, can be traced as a distinct unit under the more resistive Early Cretaceous Upper Greensand and Late Cretaceous Chalk formations. The conductivity modelling should therefore allow an estimation of the subsurface configuration of the aquifer and aquitard units.     

Hydrogeological investigation in Santiago Island (Cabo Verde) using magnetotellurics and VLF methods

A geoelectromagnetic research was carried out in the Santa Cruz region (Santiago Island, Cabo Verde) during June 2004. The survey comprised MT soundings and VLF profiles. The main purpose of the MT profile, carried out across three important valleys associated with freshwater aquifers, was to study the tectonic structures correlated to seawater infiltration. The VLF method was used inside of the valleys for investigating shallow structures related to the aquifer contamination by seawater.Numerical modelling shows that the ocean effect is not important for MT data collected at periods shorter than 1 s. The MT data were inverted using a two-dimensional approach, to obtain the sub-superficial electrical conductivity distribution. The VLF data were processed applying the Karous–Hjelt filters to obtain the equivalent current distribution and inverted using 2-D approach. The results obtained in one of the most important valleys show anomalous current concentration/low resistivity (<20 Ω m) areas at depths greater than 40 m that may correspond to an increase in seawater content.The MT data modelling show that the deep zones beneath the valley are strongly fractured representing good pathways for seawater circulation. The depth of the conductive zones increases from south to north, suggesting a northward decreasing of the seawater infiltration effect. This observation correlates very well with in situ geochemical observations.