Predation effects of benthivorous fish on grazing and shredding macroinvertebrates in a detritus-based stream food web

We investigated lethal and sublethal predation effects of the benthivorous gudgeon (Gobio gobio) on the grazing mayfly Rhithrogena semicolorata and the shredding amphipod Gammarus pulex over 21 months in a largely detritus-based small stream. We hypothesised that shredders are generally less vulnerable to fish predation and therefore less likely to be predation-controlled than grazers, because the latter are visible to the predators during their feeding on stone surfaces, while shredders may hide between leaves during foraging.The hypothesis was tested in two 400 m experimental reaches of a natural stream, which were manipulated in order to contain and to lack fish, respectively. Biomass of G. pulex was significantly reduced in the fish section while that of R. semicolorata was not. Since approximately 91% of the annual production of G. pulex but only 12% of R. semicolorata production was consumed by gudgeon, the observed biomass difference of G. pulex is likely due to a lethal predation effect. However, no sublethal predation effects such as reduced concentration of storage components (triglycerides, glycogen) or reduced reproductive success were observed for both species. Lower mean body length of the R. semicolorata larvae in the fish section did not result in a lower number of eggs in the abdomen of the last instar larvae. Hence, in contrast to our initial hypothesis, in the studied stream the shredder was top-down-controlled, while the grazer was not. It is concluded that top-down control depends on the ecological characteristics of a specific predator-prey pair rather than on trophic guild of the prey.     

Altered mayfly distribution due to strong interactions with alien rainbow trout in Andean streams of Patagonia

Nesameletidae is a Southern Hemisphere ephemeropteran family with large-bodied nymphs that are swimming grazers, traits that make aquatic invertebrates vulnerable to visual predators. Metamonius anceps is the sole representative of this family in South America and its present known distribution along the Southern Andes is mostly restricted to headwater streams, usually with clear and well-oxygenated waters.We analyzed their spatial distribution in relation to the presence of the exotic predator rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), which is the only fish species in many small Andean Patagonia streams. We measured mayfly abundance in the benthos and drift in reaches with and without fish (the latter being reaches upstream of waterfalls that prevent trout access) in three catchments of Nahuel Huapi Lake basin at the Nahuel Huapi National Park, Argentina. We compared nymphal abundance and body size at the habitat scale and at the reach scale, and nymphal presence and body size in trout diet.A multivariate analysis of physical stream features showed that habitat/reaches with and without fish had similar abiotic characteristics. In no fish sites, nymph density ranged between 44 and 180 m⁻² while in fish sites they were 0–3 m⁻². In one stream nymphs drifted mainly during the day and ∼400 indiv. day⁻¹ were estimated to enter the site with fish. However no nymphs were collected drifting 200 m below the waterfall (the reach with fish). Observations on the diet of rainbow trout also supported the ongoing strong interaction between this mayfly and the trout. M. anceps is a highly vulnerable prey as no permanent populations were found in study reaches with the exotic predator established. Our study emphasizes the potential of natural physical barriers to stop invasive fish having access to headwaters allowing them to harbour natural populations of the most trout-susceptible species supporting pristine ecosystem conditions.     

Feeding activity of adult roach (Rutilus rutilus (L.)), perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) and ruffe (Gymnocephalus cernuus (L.)) in eutrophic Lake Aydat (France)

The feeding activity of adult roach (Rutilus rutilus), perch (Perca fluviatilis) and ruffe (Gymnocephalus cernuus) was studied over a one year cycle to show trophic relations between fish and the prey communities in eutrophic Lake Aydat.Daily consumption rates were referred to the stock of the different age classes of fish. Seven food compartments (phytoplankton, macrophytes, Cladocera, Copepoda, macroinvertebrates, fish and sediment) were used by the fish. The main prey compartment ofR. rutilus were macroinvertebrates (39.7%), sediment (29.0%), macrophytes (15.4%) and phytoplankton (14.9%). Little zooplankton was consumed (2.4%).P. fluviatilis fed mainly on macroinvertebrates and fish fry (both 41.8%) and some zooplankton (15.0%). ForG. cernuus, macroinvertebrates dominated in the diet (97.4%). During spring, Bacillariophyceae and macroinvertebrates represented the principal preys. During summer, insect larvae, phytoplankton and macrophytes were the principal components of the diet. At the end of summer, macrofauna was scare and fish tended to move to the pelagic zone feeding on plankton. In autumn, the prey spectrum was large. During winter, sediment was the most important item consumed, together with some macroinvertebrates. The impact of this fish community through consumption is highest on macroinvertebrates (40.7%), flora (27.7%) and sediment (28.4%). The predation of these three fish on zooplankton was low (1% per day of the zooplankton biomass) and restricted to periods when the other items were scarce. Interspecific competition is not excluded for macroinvertebrates.     

Flexibility in feeding periodicity of a grazing mayfly in response to different concentrations of benthivorous fish

Flexibility is an important adaptive attribute of the feeding periodicity of grazing mayfly larvae because most natural environments offer a wide variation in local predation risk in terms of space, time or predator species. In this study any changes of diel feeding periodicity and consumption rates of Baetis rhodani (Ephemeroptera) were analysed in response to different densities of benthivorous fish (Barbatula barbatula, Gobio gobio) by quantifying gut fullness using the fluorescence of algal pigments. Laboratory experiments with the grazer species B. rhodani were conducted by using different concentrations of chemical fish cues. In order to assess the transferability of the results to a larger scale, the experimental results were compared with field observations in two second order streams using different densities of freely foraging benthivorous fish. During the presence of chemical fish cues in the laboratory experiments the feeding periodicity of the B. rhodani larvae were mostly diurnal while in the absence of fish chemicals nocturnal feeding was observed. The same patterns could be detected in the field during the experiments with the different fish densities. These findings indicate that the larvae were able to assess variations in the predation risk and to alter their feeding habits by making flexible behavioural adjustments. The results from the laboratory experiments further suggested that the behavioural response is controlled by fish density. Behavioural changes were observed for medium and high concentrations of the fish cues but not for a very low concentration. In the field however, the mere presence of fish seemed to be sufficient to induce the observed behavioural shifts. Although the presence of benthivorous fish seemed to cause a lower consumption rate of the B. rhodani larvae in the field, such a reduction could not be found in the laboratory experiments. A conclusion from this study is that the identification of behavioural modifications is an essential component needed for a better understanding of complex trophic interactions in benthic communities. Accurate evaluation and detailed observation of direct and indirect effects cannot be made without the consideration of such behavioural mechanisms.     

Differential piscivory of the native Percichthys trucha and exotic salmonids upon the native forage fish Galaxias maculatus in Patagonian Andean lakes

The present paper analyses predation patterns, of Percichthys trucha and salmonid fish upon Galaxias maculatus in five lakes of northern Patagonia with differing community and environmental characteristics. Tank experiments were performed to evaluate relative efficiency of native and exotic predators of G. maculatus under treatments with and without cover (aquatic vegetation). Important differences were found between predators with regards to distribution and consumption of G. maculatus. Salmonids are more efficient than P. trucha in consuming G. maculatus in deep environments with scarcely vegetation; in contrast to native species they frequently use the pelagic environment. Although pelagic habitat might have served in the past as a refuge from native predators in the past, G maculatus now experiences intense predation in the pelagic zone by exotic salmonids. It is suggested that the widespread distribution of G. maculatus in Patagonian lakes may have facilitated the success of salmonids throughout Patagonia.     

Fish predation on sympatric and allopatric prey—A case study of Ponto-Caspian gobies,European bullhead and amphipods

Due to the increasing number of biological invasions, more and more non-native species become components of already existing food chains and new interactions develop within communities. In our study, we checked whether (1) the predation preferences depended on sympatric or allopatric occurrence of predator and prey (a predator may choose the well-known prey or rather benefit from the naïvety of the novel one) and (2) fish preferences depended on prey susceptibility to fish predation (ability to hide, active predator avoidance) and/or on its palatability. We studied foraging efficiency of two species of Ponto-Caspian gobies (the round goby Neogobius melanostomus and tubenose goby Proterorhinus semilunaris) and the European bullhead Cottus gobio on two species of amphipods—Ponto-Caspian Dikerogammarus villosus and non-invasive Gammarus fossarum, occurring in Central and Western Europe. The gammarids were offered to fish with or without shelters and as mobile individuals or immobilized to test the effect of their hiding ability, mobility and palatability on fish predation. Fish selectivity was exhibited only in trials with motile prey, where all tested predators preferred G. fossarum over D. villosus, showing that their selectivity was independent of prey origin. No selectivity was observed for immobilized amphipods. When shelters were present, the predation was lowest. Thus, predator preferences depended on prey behavioural traits (effective shelter utilization and/or activity reduction) rather than on their palatability. Effective predator preference of G. fossarum over D. villosus may be one of the reasons of the successful invasion of the latter to the European inland waters.     

Environmentally-induced plasticity of life history parameters in the cladoceran Simocephalus vetulus

Key life history parameters significantly differed between two different clones of Simocephalus vetulus originating from different habitats, i.e. a fishless pool and a fish pond. The following fitness-related traits were studied: lifespan, age at first reproduction, interclutch period, number of clutches, and number of embryos. In general, in relation to the fish pond clone the fishless pool clone revealed longer lifespan and higher fecundity due to more frequent clutches, contributing to a higher fitness. Higher food quantities decreased the lifespan but did not alter fitness-related traits except for a shorter interclutch period. The Simocephalus clone from the fishless pool matured earlier in low food conditions, while the fish pond clone matured earlier in the high food conditions. The switch in food concentration between the subsequent generations significantly shortened the lifespan in the fish pond clone but revealed no effect in the fishless pool clone.     

Effect of the selective feeding ofGalaxias maculatus (Salmoniformes,Galaxiidae) on zooplankton of a South Andes lake

The effect of larval and juvenile predation ofGalaxias maculatus on a natural small-sized zooplankton was studied in a South Andes lake. Field data of zooplankton density and composition were combined with fish gut content analysis during a spring-summer season. Results showed thatGalaxias early stages ingested mostly planktonic preys. A shift was observed in prey electivity: larvae preferred copepod nauplii whereas juveniles preferred cladocerans. Larval predation provokes the failure of the summer cohort of the calanoid copepodBoeckella gracilipes. The effect of juveniles is more undefined, but seems to prevent the reappearance ofCeriodaphnia in the summer plankton.     

Seasonal changes in vertical distribution of zooplankton in an oligotrophic, subarctic lake (Lake Takvatn, Norway)

Zooplankton vertical distribution was studied in Lake Takvatn (69°07′ N) by discrete sampling of the water column during the open water season. Attention was focused on predation risk and competition to understand when, where and to what degree a given species should aggregate along the water column. Temperature profiles and phytoplankton abundance and composition were recorded to assess degree of heterogeneity and food availability in the pelagic zone. Vertical segregation was evident during thermal stratification. Rotifers partitioned the water column, with species less susceptible to predation (e.g. Conochilus unicornis) in the epilimnion, where they overlapped with the predators Asplanchna priodonta and Polyphemus pediculus, and species more vulnerable to these predators (e.g. Keratella cochlearis) in the hypolimnion. Cladocerans remained in the epilimnion, in a year when predation by fish was limited. The copepodites of Eudiaptomus graciloides and Cyclops scutifer maintained different depths staying respectively near surface and in the meta-hypolimnion. A broader distribution with increasing density was evident among rotifers and C. scutifer nauplii. Density-dependent habitat selection behaviour is considered as a mechanism explaining the observed distribution of predators and competing prey and promoting species coexistence.     

Zooplankton community structure and ecology of the tropical-highland Lake Hayq, Ethiopia

Lake Hayq, a highland lake in Ethiopia, was stocked with Tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus) in late 1970s, offering an opportunity to study the effect of fish predation in a natural lake. Since 1930s, some limnological surveys have been done sporadically documenting a change in zooplankton composition including the disappearance of cladocerans, hypothesizing the stocked planktivorous fish could be a cause. Nevertheless, no detailed research was conducted to identify potential effects of fish stocking predominantly due to its remote location. The article presents data about zooplankton composition, abundance and biomass done between October 2007 and January 2009 on short-time intervals including the underlying limnological variables. The zooplankton community was depauperate comprising two copepods, three cladocerans, and six rotifers taxa, as typical for tropical lakes. Total mean standing biomass of all crustacean zooplankton was 237 mg dry mass m⁻³, which gave Lake Hayq an intermediate position when compared with other tropical lakes. Of copepods, Thermocyclops ethiopiensis was almost an exclusive species, and its temporal variation was influenced by food supply and water temperature. We refute the hypothesis that Tilapia was the cause for the seasonal disappearance of cladocerans, and attribute it to the adverse effect of episodic mixing. Nevertheless, the planktivorous fish probably plays a key role in structuring the cladocerans in particular the large-sized Daphnia magna. In January 2008, we observed a massive planktivorous fish mortality that triggered high algal biomass, which was later grazed by large-sized D. magna demonstrating the trophic cascade hypothesis in a natural ecosystem.     

Indirect effects of asymmetrical competition among top predators determine spatial patterns of predation risk for prey

Asymmetrical interspecific competition among top predators can indirectly affect the predation risk for their prey by altering the abundance, diet, and habitat use of inferior competitors. However, the indirect effects of such biological interactions are poorly known because of the difficulties in measuring predation risk in nature. We addressed this issue by assessing the effect of asymmetrical competition among brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and two superior non-piscivorous competitors, creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus) and white sucker (Catostomus commersonii), on the predation risk of a brook trout prey, northern redbelly dace (Chrosomus eos). We determined the spatio-temporal patterns of relative predation risk of dace with tethering experiments in 11 lakes containing either only brook trout and dace (n = 5), or brook trout, dace, chub, and sucker (n = 6). The diel pattern of the relative predation risk and the overall relative predation risk of dace were not significantly different in lakes with or without brook trout competitors. However, we observed a significant shift in the relative predation risk from the lower pelagic to the upper pelagic and littoral zones in the presence of brook trout competitors. This study highlights the fact that the outcome of interactions can vary in space and that care should be used when extrapolating the results of small-scale experiments or coarse-scale estimates to the whole ecosystem.     

太湖不同生态型湖区湖鲚(Coilia ectenes taihuensis)食物组成及其季节变化

利用单船表层单囊拖网于2013年2 12月分别在太湖不同生态型湖区(敞水湖区和草型湖区)采集湖鲚(Coilia ectenes taihuensis)样品,同时用刺网补充大个体样品.通过胃含物鉴定,分析湖鲚饵料生物的种类及数量季节和湖区间差异,同时测定湖鲚摄食率、肥满度和食物选择系数等.结果显示,湖鲚主要食物为浮游枝角类和桡足类,此外,水生昆虫、轮虫和小型鱼虾也是湖鲚的重要食物来源.湖鲚食物组成季节变化明显,冬季以桡足类的哲水蚤(Calanus spp.)、剑水蚤(Cyclops spp.)为主,夏、秋季则以枝角类的象鼻溞(Bosmina spp.)、裸腹溞(Moina spp.)和盘肠溞(Chydorus spp.)为主.不同湖区湖鲚食物种类差异明显,草型湖区水生昆虫、鱼虾较敞水湖区多,桡足类较敞水湖区少.不同湖区间湖鲚食物数量差异明显,敞水湖区湖鲚平均食物数量为788.98±262.4 ind./尾,而草型湖区仅为298.85±71.1 ind./尾.湖鲚主动摄食大型枝角类,如僧帽溞(Daphnia cucullata)、低额溞(Simocephalus spp.)和大型溞(Daphnia magna),选择指数(Ii)介于0.59~1.00之间.小型裸腹溞(Moina spp.)也是湖鲚主动选择的食物(0.62Ii0.95),但湖鲚对桡足类选择性较低,这可能与桡足类较强的逃避能力有关.湖鲚对食物选择性的季节变化明显,如冬季回避透明薄皮溞(Leptodora kindti),而夏季则主动选择,但不同湖区湖鲚对食物的选择差别较小.本研究结果有利于从食物网层面剖析湖鲚种群增长原因,进而通过生物操纵理论对湖鲚种群进行控制,最终为形成合理的湖泊渔业结构和湖泊环境修复提供科学依据.     

西江广东鲂(Megalobrama terminalis)繁殖生物学及繁殖策略

探究鱼类繁殖策略是了解鱼类种群动态的关键.通过对珠江西江流域重要的经济鱼类广东鲂(Megalobrama terminalis)生殖周期、产卵时间、成熟期长度、生殖力类型和生殖力等方面进行研究,阐明在人类活动日益加强下,西江广东鲂的繁殖策略适应性变化情况.研究表明,广东鲂个体平均体长245 mm,优势体长集中在260~280 mm,平均体重347 g,优势体重集中在320~480 g.用L 50逻辑斯谛回归方法推算广东鲂雌鱼和雄鱼初次性成熟体长分别为244.5和232.2 mm.雌雄性比例为1.105∶1,且随着体长增加,雌雄性比呈现出先下降后上升的变化趋势.广东鲂繁殖群体在产卵季节为48月,产卵高峰为6月初持续到7月上旬,产卵季节内广东鲂鱼苗的密度与径流量显著相关.广东鲂绝对繁殖力平均为73069粒,相对繁殖力平均为118.7粒/g,绝对繁殖力与体长和体重均呈正相关.广东鲂繁殖群体性腺成熟系数与性腺重、肥满度以及体重密切相关.广东鲂种群繁殖策略在人类活动加剧影响下呈现出适应性变化:初次性成熟体长变小,绝对繁殖力下降.     

同形溞(Daphnia similis)对幽蚊幼虫反捕食策略的模拟研究

枝角类溞会由于捕食者的存在而发生形态、行为、生活史等的变化.通过为期10 d对太湖春、夏季优势种同形溞(Daphnia similis)在有幽蚊幼虫(CL)、无幽蚊幼虫(CK)及培养过幽蚊幼虫的过滤水(FL)3个环境水平的模拟实验,发现同形溞在有幽蚊幼虫和培养过幽蚊幼虫的过滤水处理下平均体长、累积产仔数及平均产仔数均显著大于无幽蚊幼虫组,表明幽蚊幼虫释放的信息素能改变同形溞的体长、产仔数等生活史参数,这种改变会降低同形溞被捕食的风险.说明在自然环境下,幽蚊幼虫等无脊椎捕食者能通过直接捕食和信息素的间接作用共同影响枝角类种群.     

High CO₂ and marine animal behaviour: potential mechanisms and ecological consequences

Exposure to pollution and environmental change can alter the behaviour of aquatic animals and here we review recent evidence that exposure to elevated CO? and reduced sea water pH alters the behaviour of tropical reef fish and hermit crabs. Three main routes through which behaviour might be altered are discussed; elevated metabolic load, 'info-disruption' and avoidance behaviour away from polluted locations. There is clear experimental evidence that exposure to high CO? disrupts the ability to find settlement sites and shelters, the ability to detect predators and the ability to detect prey and food. In marine vertebrates and marine crustaceans behavioural change appears to occur via info-disruption. In hermit crabs and other crustaceans impairment of performance capacities might also play a role. We discuss the implications for such behavioural changes in terms of potential impacts at the levels of population health and ecosystem services, and consider future directions for research.     

青藏高原达则错近1000年来生态系统变化及可能机制

在全球变化的背景下,厘清湖泊生态系统对气候环境以及人类活动的响应机制对制定社会的适应政策非常重要.目前的研究手段如现场观测和围隔实验等可以很好地揭示湖泊生态系统在有观测记录以来的演替和变化过程,但是不能提供历史时期湖泊生态系统的变化及其对气候环境变化和人类活动的响应.古湖沼学可以为探讨湖泊生态系统的长期变化及其对气候环境变化的响应提供重要信息.本文以青藏高原中部无鱼湖泊达则错为研究对象,利用沉积物岩芯西藏拟溞（Daphnia tibetana）残体丰度和总烯酮含量重建该区过去1000年的浮游生物记录;利用总氮、总磷以及总有机碳含量重建过去1000年湖泊营养盐以及有机质变化记录;结合烯酮不饱和度重建的古温度记录,探讨达则错过去1000年生态系统变化及其对气候环境演变的响应机制.研究发现达则错湖泊生态系统尤其是生产力在自然状况和人类活动影响下存在显著变化.在自然状况下,较高的湖泊初级和次级生产力发生在温度较低和湖水营养盐浓度较高时;而在过去150年,达则错湖泊环境受到人类活动影响显著,湖泊生产力发生相应变化,较高的湖泊生产力发生在温度较高时期,其主要受由人类活动带来的营养盐元素浓度控制.研究结果表明达则错湖泊生态系统在人类活动影响下发生了显著的改变.     

Effects of environmental factors and predation on benthic communities in headwater streams

Structure and composition of benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages were investigated during three consecutive years in six headwater streams that exhibit a high variation in environmental conditions, habitat structure and predatory pressure. We examined whether the abundance of functional feeding groups could be best predicted by the abundance of predators and some habitat and chemical variables. Mean density and biomass of macroinvertebrate functional feeding groups varied significantly throughout the study area. Stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed that both density and biomass of functional feeding groups was influenced primarily by chemical features of water. Shredder biomass and scraper density were also influenced by habitat features, the abundance of scrapers increasing in deeper localities at lower altitudes and with abundant macrophytes. The abundance of predatory invertebrates was related to the density and biomass of benthic prey. An influence of fish predation on invertebrate communities was not observed in the study streams. The finding that benthic communities in undisturbed headwater streams are mainly affected by water chemistry variables irrespective of fish predation and habitat features clearly highlight the sensitivity of functional feeding groups to changes in chemical features and their role as indicators for bioassessment.     

近30年来鄱阳湖生态系统服务变化

鄱阳湖是我国最大淡水湖,在维持区域生态安全和生态平衡中发挥重要作用.为了解近30年鄱阳湖生态系统服务变化情况,本文对已有文献与监测数据进行收集整理,直接获取鄱阳湖水资源供给、渔业资源供给、水环境净化服务数据,通过输沙量法、Berger-Parker优势度指数计算泥沙淤积调控和生物多样性维持服务,利用RMSD方法分析19922014年鄱阳湖生态系统服务关系.结果表明:(1)渔业资源供给和水环境净化服务不断下降,水资源供给和泥沙淤积调控服务在2010s有所恢复;(2)冬候鸟种类和数量增加,鱼类种群结构逐渐恢复,但Berger-Parker指数总体上升;(3)浮游植物、底栖动物多样性上升,浮游动物多样性下降;(4)不同时间尺度各服务间均为高权衡关系,水环境净化服务相对收益始终高于其他服务.