综合非滑坡样本选取指数与异质集成机器学习的区域滑坡易发性建模

为解决基于机器学习的滑坡易发性建模存在的单模型分类能力弱和传统随机抽取非滑坡样本准确性不高的问题，本研究以三峡库区奉节县为例，应用优化的非滑坡样本和Stacking异质集成机器学习模型进行滑坡易发性建模研究。首先，基于地形、地质和遥感影像等数据提取16个评价指标并进行相关性分析，剔除高相关指标，构建易发性评价指标体系；其次，基于信息量模型提出非滑坡样本选取（Non-Landslide Sampling, NLS）指数；最后，应用NLS指数选取更高质量的非滑坡样本，并与滑坡样本组成训练集；采用随机森林(Random Forest, RF)，轻量级梯度提升树（Light Gradient Boosting Machine, LGBM），梯度提升决策树（Gradient Boosting Decision Tree, GBDT），以及以三者为基模型的同质（Boosting）和异质（Stacking）集成方法进行易发性建模。结果表明：应用NLS指数能选取得到质量更高的非滑坡样本，提升了易发性建模精度；Stacking异质集成机器学习模型的精度最高，为0.941，优于3个同质集成模型和3个单模型...     

人工神经网络和决策树模型在滑坡易发性分析中的性能对比

机器学习模型广泛应用于区域性滑坡易发性分析。模型的选择关系到评价结果的可信度、准确率和稳定性。现有滑坡易发性分析模型对比研究侧重模型的预测精度。模型的稳定性和数据量敏感性对机器学习模型的性能评估同样非常重要。本文以福建省南平市蔡源流域为研究区,以四川省绵阳市北川县为验证区,从预测精度、稳定性和数据量敏感性3个方面深入对比BP（Back Propagation）人工神经网络模型和CART（Classification and Regression Tree）决策树模型在滑坡易发性分析中的效果,主要结论如下:① 在逐渐增加一定数量训练样本的过程中,BP人工神经网络模型预测精度的增长率更高。在蔡源流域内,当训练样本数量增加10 000时,BP人工神经网络模型的预测精度上升5.22%,CART决策树模型的预测精度上升2.11%。② BP人工神经网络的预测精度高于CART决策树模型,且较为稳定。在100组数据集上,BP人工神经网络模型验证集预测精度的均值和验证集滑坡样本预测精度的均值分别为81.60%和84.86%,高于CART决策树模型的72.97%和76.59%。与此同时,BP人工神经网络模型对应预测精度的标准差分别是0.32%和0.37%,小于CART决策树模型的0.35%和0.67%。③ BP人工神经网络模型分析的滑坡易发区相比CART决策树模型,更接近实际滑坡的空间分布。最后,北川县的验证实验也出现了相同的现象。     

确定性系数与随机森林模型在云南芒市滑坡易发性评价中的应用

编制科学的滑坡易发性分区图,可以有效降低灾害带来的损失。以云南省芒市为研究区,利用确定性系数模型（certainty factor,简称CF）方法计算各个因子的敏感值,作为随机森林（random forests,简称RF）的分类数据,选取合适的训练数据和最优化的模型参数进行模型预测,从而对研究区进行滑坡易发性评价分区。采用频率比方法将连续性因子离散化,从而通过确定性系数计算因子不同区间的滑坡易发性,同时利用CF先验模型,对研究区负样本进行选取。通过计算袋外误差得到最优化的RF参数,随后利用RF模型对研究区模型进行训练及预测。绘制ROC曲线和三维遥感影像对预测模型结果分别进行定量和定性评价,结果表明,所得到的模型精度为91%,优于随机抽样得到的结果。最后,采用平均基尼不纯度减少和平均准确度下降两种计算方法计算、评价了研究区各个因子的重要性。基于以上对研究区进行的滑坡易发性评价结果,可以为该区灾害风险评估和管理提供依据。      

基于深度学习的滑坡灾害易发性分析

滑坡灾害成因机理复杂、影响因素众多,深度学习作为当前人工智能领域的热点,能够更好地模拟滑坡灾害的形成并准确预测潜在的斜坡。为了挖掘深度学习在滑坡易发性的应用潜能,本文构建了一维、二维和三维的滑坡数据表达形式,并提出3种基于卷积神经网络模型（Convolutional Neural Networks, CNN）的滑坡易发性分析处理框架：基于CNN分类器、基于CNN与逻辑回归的融合和基于CNN集成,最后以江西省铅山县为研究对象进行验证,结果表明：所有基于CNN的易发性模型都能够获得准确且可靠的滑坡易发性分析结果。其中,基于二维数据的CNN模型在所有单分类器中预测精度最高,为78.95%。此外,二维CNN特征提取能够显著提升逻辑回归的预测精度,其准确率提升7.9%。最后,异质集成策略能够大幅度提升基于CNN分类器的滑坡预测精度,其准确率提升4.35%~8.78%。     

基于信息量模型和数据标准化的滑坡易发性评价

本文以北川曲山-擂鼓片区为研究区,将坡度、坡向、高程、地层、距断层的距离、距水系的距离和距道路的距离作为该区域滑坡易发性评价因子。采用信息量模型计算了各项评价因子的信息量值,并运用4种标准化模型对信息量值进行标准化处理。各评价因子的权重由层次分析法（AHP）确定。在GIS中将权重值和各评价因子的标准化信息量值,进行叠加计算得到区域滑坡总信息量值,并基于自然断点法对其进行重分类,将研究区划分为极高易发区、高易发区、中易发区、低易发区和极低易发区5级易发区。将基于4种标准化模型和信息量模型得到的滑坡易发性评价结果进行了对比分析,结果表明：基于最值标准化信息量模型的滑坡易发性评价结果的ROC曲线下面积AUC值为0.807,高于其余模型的AUC值,说明最值标准化信息量模型的滑坡易发性评价效果最好。极高易发区面积占研究区面积的20.03%,离断层和水系较近,主要分布地层为寒武系、志留系和三迭系。研究结果可为区内滑坡风险评价和灾害防治提供参考。     

基于栅格最大值法的县域综合地质灾害建模

四川省地形高低悬殊, 岩性构造发育, 各类地质灾害频发, 开展地质灾害易发性评价具有重要意义。崩塌、泥石流属于广义上的滑坡, 以四川省丹巴县为例, 从考虑不同滑坡类别的区域性地质灾害易发性出发综合考虑崩塌、滑坡、泥石流的空间概率分布。基于ArcGIS通过高精度数字高程模型共选取高程、坡度等10个地质灾害关键控制因素, 采用信息量模型对综合地质灾害进行了易发性评价。最终通过ArcGIS的单元统计(Cell Statistics)功能实现多个栅格图层最大值法合成综合易发性, 进一步利用受试者工作特征曲线(ROC)验证单种滑坡类别易发性模型的精度。按照自然断点法将研究区划分为极低、低、中、高、极高易发区, 高易发区和极高易发区主要集中分布在章谷镇、太平桥乡以及甲居镇等地。研究结果证明信息量模型能对单类地质灾害进行评价, 栅格最大值法是获取综合易发性的一种有效评价方法。      

基于空间多尺度分析的滑坡易发性评价——以三峡库区秭归-巴东段为例

以三峡库区秭归-巴东段为例,将地理加权回归(GWR)模型引入到研究区的空间尺度分割方法中,利用粒子群优化(PSO)算法对支持向量机(SVM)模型参数进行优化,构建GWR-PSO-SVM耦合模型,完成研究区滑坡易发性评价,并与传统的PSO-SVM耦合模型结果进行对比。结果表明,在特定类别精度分析、总体预测精度分析和曲线下面积分析中,本文方法评价效果均优于传统方法。     

基于GIS与信息量模型法的山东省蒙阴县地质灾害易发性评价

蒙阴县位于山东省东南部,岱崮地貌分布范围较广。近年来,随着人类工程活动的增强,崩塌滑坡泥石流灾害进一步加剧。本文在山东省蒙阴县1∶5万地质灾害风险普查的基础上,结合最新的遥感信息,选取坡度、起伏度、工程地质岩组、地质构造、地貌类型5个影响因子作为研究区地质灾害易发性的评价指标,采用信息量模型法对各评价因子进行信息量计算,通过GIS空间分析平台,建立了蒙阴县地质灾害易发性评价体系,为蒙阴县有效开展防灾减灾救灾工作,切实保障经济社会可持续发展提供有效的科学决策依据。研究区划分为地质灾害高易发区、中易发区、低易发区、非易发区４个等级,特征曲线（ROC）的线下面积（AUC）精度检验值为0.833,表明评价精度较高。     

支持向量机与Newmark模型结合的地震滑坡易发性评估研究

Newmark位移模型是研究地震滑坡易发性的经典模型,机器学习方法支持向量机模型也越来越多的应用到滑坡易发性评估研究。本文将Newmark位移模型与支持向量机模型相结合,建立基于物理机理的地震滑坡易发性评估模型并应用于2008年汶川地震重灾区汶川县。从震后遥感影像目视解译出汶川县1900处地震诱发滑坡,并将其随机划分为70%的训练数据集和30%的验证数据集。选择地形起伏度、坡度、地形曲率、与构造断裂带距离、与水系距离、与道路距离6个因子与Newmark位移值共同作为地震滑坡易发性影响因素。利用ROC曲线和模型不确定性等指标对模型结果进行评估,并与二元统计模型频率比和多元统计模型Logistic回归的结果进行对比。结果表明：与频率比和Logistic回归模型相比,支持向量机模型的正确率最高,训练集和验证集ROC曲线下的面积分别为0.876和0.851。将模型应用于绘制汶川县地震滑坡易发性图,结果显示滑坡易发性图与实际的滑坡点位分布一致性较高,有80.4%的滑坡位于极高和高易发区。这说明支持向量机与Newmark位移方法结合建立的地震滑坡易发性评估模型有较高的预测价值,可以为滑坡风险评估和管理提供依据。     

基于机器学习的滑坡易发性预测建模及其主控因子识别

不同机器学习预测滑坡易发性的建模过程及其不确定性有所差异, 另外如何有效识别滑坡易发性的主控因子意义重大。针对上述问题, 以支持向量机(support vector machine, 简称SVM)和随机森林(random forest, 简称RF)为例探讨了基于机器学习的滑坡易发性预测及其不确定性, 创新地提出了"权重均值法"来综合计算出更准确的滑坡主控因子。首先获取陕西省延长县滑坡编录和10类基础环境因子, 将因子频率比值作为SVM和RF的输入变量; 再将滑坡与随机选择的非滑坡样本划分为训练集和测试集, 用训练好的机器学习预测出滑坡易发性并制图; 最后用受试者工作曲线、均值和标准差等来评估建模不确定性, 并计算滑坡主控因子。结果表明: ①机器学习能有效预测出区域滑坡易发性, RF预测的滑坡易发性精度高于SVM, 而其不确定性低于SVM, 但两者的易发性分布规律整体相似; ②权重均值法计算出延长县滑坡主控因子依次是坡度、高程和岩性。实例分析和文献综述显示RF模型相较于其他机器学习模型属于可靠性较高的易发性模型。      

Landslide inventory and susceptibility assessment using multiple statistical approaches along the Karakoram highway,northern Pakistan

China-Pakistan Economic Corridor(CPEC)is a framework of regional connectivity,which will not only benefit China and Pakistan but will have positive impact on Iran,Afghanistan,India,Central Asian Republic,and the region.The surrounding area in CPEC is prone to frequent disruption by geological hazards mainly landslides in northern Pakistan.Comprehensive landslide inventory and susceptibility assessment are rarely available to utilize for landslide mitigation strategies.This study aims to utilize the high-resolution satellite images to develop a comprehensive landslide inventory and subsequently develop landslide susceptibility maps using multiple techniques.The very high-resolution(VHR)satellite images are utilized to develop a landslide inventory using the visual image classification techniques,historic records and field observations.A total of 1632 landslides are mapped in the area.Four statistical models i.e.,frequency ratio,artificial neural network,weights of evidence and logistic regression were used for landslide susceptibility modeling by comparing the landslide inventory with the topographic parameters,geological features,drainage and road network.The developed landslides susceptibility maps were verified using the area under curve(AUC)method.The prediction power of the model was assessed by the prediction rate curve.The success rate curves show 93%,92.8%,92.7%and 87.4%accuracy of susceptibility maps for frequency ratio,artificial neural network,weights of evidence and logistic regression,respectively.The developed landslide inventory and susceptibility maps can be used for land use planning and landslide mitigation strategies.     

Landslide inventory and susceptibility modelling using geospatial tools,in Hunza-Nagar valley,northern Pakistan

A comprehensive landslide inventory and susceptibility maps are prerequisite for developing and implementing landslide mitigation strategies. Landslide susceptibility maps for the landslides prone regions in northern Pakistan are rarely available. The Hunza-Nagar valley in northern Pakistan is known for its frequent and devastating landslides. In this paper, we have developed a landslide inventory map for Hunza-Nagar valley by using the visual interpretation of the SPOT-5 satellite imagery and mapped a total of 172 landslides. The landslide inventory was subsequently divided into modelling and validation data sets. For the development of landslide susceptibility map seven discrete landslide causative factors were correlated with the landslide inventory map using weight of evidence and frequency ratio statistical models. Four different models of conditional independence were used for the selection of landslide causative factors. The produced landslides susceptibility maps were validated by the success rate and area under curves criteria. The prediction power of the models was also validated with the prediction rate curve. The validation results shows that the success rate curves of the weight of evidence and the frequency models are 82% and 79%, respectively. The prediction accuracy results obtained from this study are 84% for weight of evidence model and 80% for the frequency ratio model. Finally, the landslide susceptibility index maps were classified into five different varying susceptibility zones. The validation and prediction result indicates that the weight of evidence and frequency ratio model are reliable to produce an accurate landslide susceptibility map, which may be helpful for landslides management strategies.     

Landslide Susceptibility Mapping along Bhalubang–Shiwapur Area of Mid-Western Nepal Using Frequency Ratio and Conditional Probability Models

Roads constructed in fragile Siwaliks are prone to large number of instabilities. Bhalubang–Shiwapur section of Mahendra Highway lying in Western Nepal is one of them. To understand the landslide causative factor and to predict future occurrence of the landslides, landslide susceptibility mapping(LSM) of this region was carried out using frequency ratio(FR) and weights-of-evidence(W of E) models. These models are easy to apply and give good results. For this, landslide inventory map of the area was prepared based on the aerial photo interpretation, from previously published/unpublished reposts, and detailed field survey using GPS. About 332 landslides were identified and mapped, among which 226(70%) were randomly selected for model training and the remaining 106(30%) were used for validation purpose. A spatial database was constructed from topographic, geological, and land cover maps. The reclassified maps based on the weight values of frequency ratio and weights-of-evidence were applied to get final susceptibility maps. The resultant landslide susceptibility maps were verified andcompared with the training data, as well as with the validation data. From the analysis, it is seen that both the models were equally capable of predicting landslide susceptibility of the region(W of E model(success rate = 83.39%, prediction rate = 79.59%); FR model(success rate = 83.31%, prediction rate = 78.58%)). In addition, it was observed that the distance from highway and lithology, followed by distance from drainage, slope curvature, and slope gradient played major role in the formation of landsides. The landslide susceptibility maps thus produced can serve as basic tools for planners and engineers to carry out further development works in this landslide prone area.     

Evaluating effectiveness of frequency ratio,fuzzy logic and logistic regression models in assessing landslide susceptibility: a case from Rudraprayag district,India

Rudraprayag in Garhwal Himalayan division is one of the most vulnerable districts to landslides in India. Heavy rainfall, steep slope and developmental activities are important factors for the occurrence of landslides in the district. Therefore, specific assessment of landslide susceptibility and its accuracy at regional level is essential for disaster management and proper land use planning. The article evaluates effectiveness of frequency ratio, fuzzy logic and logistic regression models for assessing landslide susceptibility in Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand state, India. A landslide inventory map was prepared and verified by field data. Fourteen landslide parameters and generated inventory map were utilized to prepare landslide susceptibility maps through frequency ratio, fuzzy logic and logistic regression models. Landslide susceptibility maps generated through these models were classified into very high, high, medium, low and very low categories using natural breaks classification. Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve, spatially agreed area approach and seed cell area index (SCAI) method were used to validate the landslide models. Validation results revealed that fuzzy logic model was found to be more effective in assessing landslide susceptibility in the study area. The landslide susceptibility map generated through fuzzy logic model can be best utilized for landslide disaster management and effective land use planning.     

霍西煤矿区地表滑坡灾害敏感性数值建模与等级划分

本文以山西省霍西煤矿区为研究区,利用遥感和GIS方法对滑坡灾害的敏感性进行了数值建模与定量评价。利用交叉检验方法构建了径向基核函数支持向量机滑坡敏感性评价模型,并基于拟合精度对模型进行了定量评价;对各评价因子在模型中的重要性进行对比分析;基于空间分辨率为30m的评价因子,通过径向基核函数支持向量机模型获得了霍西煤矿区滑坡敏感性指数值,并利用分位数法将霍西煤矿区的滑坡敏感性分为极高、高、中和低4个等级。结果表明：拟合精度建模阶段和验证阶段分别为87.22%和70.12%;与滑坡敏感性关系最密切的5个评价因子依次是岩性、距道路距离、坡向、高程和土地利用类型;极高和高敏感区域分布了93.49%的滑坡点,面积占总面积的50.99%,是比较合理的分级方案。本研究不仅可以为研究区人工边坡调查和煤矿资源合理开采提供借鉴,对相似矿区的相关工作也具有参考价值。     

Landslide initiation and runout susceptibility modeling in the context of hill cutting and rapid urbanization: a combined approach of weights of evidence and spatial multi-criteria

Rainfall induced landslides are a common threat to the communities living on dangerous hill-slopes in Chittagong Metropolitan Area, Bangladesh. Extreme population pressure, indiscriminate hill cutting, increased precipitation events due to global warming and associated unplanned urbanization in the hills are exaggerating landslide events. The aim of this article is to prepare a scientifically accurate landslide susceptibility map by combining landslide initiation and runout maps. Land cover, slope, soil permeability, surface geology, precipitation, aspect, and distance to hill cut, road cut, drainage and stream network factor maps were selected by conditional independence test. The locations of 56 landslides were collected by field surveying. A weight of evidence (WoE) method was applied to calculate the positive (presence of landslides) and negative (absence of landslides) factor weights. A combination of analytical hierarchical process (AHP) and fuzzy membership standardization (weighs from 0 to 1) was applied for performing a spatial multi-criteria evaluation. Expert opinion guided the decision rule for AHP. The Flow-R tool that allows modeling landslide runout from the initiation sources was applied. The flow direction was calculated using the modified Holmgren’s algorithm. The AHP landslide initiation and runout susceptibility maps were used to prepare a combined landslide susceptibility map. The relative operating characteristic curve was used for model validation purpose. The accuracy of WoE, AHP, and combined susceptibility map was calculated 96%, 97%, and 98%, respectively.     

GIS-based Frequency Ratio and Logistic Regression Modelling for Landslide Susceptibility Mapping of Debre Sina Area in Central Ethiopia

Ethiopia has a mountainous landscape which can be divided into the Northwestern and Southeastern plateaus by the Main Ethiopian Rift and Afar Depression. Debre Sina area is located in Central Ethiopia along the escarpment where landslide problem is frequent due to steep slope, complex geology, rift tectonics, heavy rainfall and seismicity. In order to tackle this problem, preparing a landslide susceptibility map is very important. For this, GISbased frequency ratio(FR) and logistic regression(LR) models have been applied using landslide inventory and the nine landslide factors(i.e. lithology, land use, distance from river fault, slope, aspect, elevation, curvature and annual rainfall). Database construction, weighting each factor classes or factors, preparing susceptibility map and validation were the major steps to be undertaken. Both models require a rasterized landslide inventory and landslide factor maps. The former was classified into training and validation landslides. Using FR model, weights for each factor classes were calculated and assigned so that all the weighted factor maps can be added to produce a landslide susceptibility map. In the case of LR model, the entire study area is firstly divided into landslide and non-landslide areas using the training landslides. Then, these areas are changed into landslide and non-landslide points so as to extract the FR maps of the nine landslide factors. Then a linear relationship is established between training landslides and landslide factors in SPSS. Based on this relationship, the final landslide susceptibility map is prepared using LR equation. The success-rate and prediction-rate of FR model were 74.8% and 73.5%, while in case of LR model these were 75.7% and 74.5% respectively. A close similarity in the prediction and validation rates showed that the model is acceptable. Accuracy of LR model is slightly better in predicting the landslide susceptibility of the area compared to FR model.     

Mapping landslide susceptibility at the Three Gorges Reservoir,China, using gradient boosting decision tree,random forest and information value models

This work was to generate landslide susceptibility maps for the Three Gorges Reservoir(TGR) area, China by using different machine learning models. Three advanced machine learning methods, namely, gradient boosting decision tree(GBDT), random forest(RF) and information value(InV) models, were used, and the performances were assessed and compared. In total, 202 landslides were mapped by using a series of field surveys, aerial photographs, and reviews of historical and bibliographical data. Nine causative factors were then considered in landslide susceptibility map generation by using the GBDT, RF and InV models. All of the maps of the causative factors were resampled to a resolution of 28.5 m. Of the 486289 pixels in the area,28526 pixels were landslide pixels, and 457763 pixels were non-landslide pixels. Finally, landslide susceptibility maps were generated by using the three machine learning models, and their performances were assessed through receiver operating characteristic(ROC) curves, the sensitivity, specificity,overall accuracy(OA), and kappa coefficient(KAPPA). The results showed that the GBDT, RF and In V models in overall produced reasonable accurate landslide susceptibility maps. Among these three methods, the GBDT method outperforms the other two machine learning methods, which can provide strong technical support for producing landslide susceptibility maps in TGR.