Study of Dominant Factors Affecting Cerchar Abrasivity Index

The Cerchar abrasion index is commonly used to represent rock abrasion for estimation of bit life and wear in various mining and tunneling applications. Although the test is simple and fast, there are some discrepancies in the test results related to the equipment used, condition of the rock surface, operator skills, and procedures used in conducting and measuring the wear surface. This paper focuses on the background of the test and examines the influence of various parameters on Cerchar testing including pin hardness, surface condition of specimens, petrographical and geomechanical properties, test speed, applied load, and method of measuring wear surface. Results of Cerchar tests on a set of rock specimens performed at different laboratories are presented to examine repeatability of the tests. In addition, the preliminary results of testing with a new device as a potential alternative testing system for rock abrasivity measurement are discussed.     

The introduction of neural network system and its applications in rock engineering

The neural network system has been developing very fast recently. It has been widely used in many industries such as automation, nuclear power plant, chemical industry, etc. Neural network systems have a great advantage in dealing with problems in which many factors influence the process and result, and the understanding of this process is poor, and there are experimental data or field data. In rock engineering, many problems are of this nature. In this paper, a brief introduction to neural network systems is given. Problems such as what is a neural network, how it works and what kind of advantages it has are discussed. After this, several applications in rock engineering, made by us, are presented. Case 1 is ore boundary delineation. In this case, the rock are divided into three classes, i.e.: (1) waste rock; (2) semi-ore; and (3) ore for mining purposes. The neural network system built can judge whether it is ore, semi-ore or waste rock along the borehole according its corresponding geophysical logging data, such as gamma-ray, gamma-gamma, neutron and resistivity. Case 2 is aggregate quality prediction. In this case, the quality parameters: (1) impact value; (2) abrasion value I; and (3) abrasion value II are predicted by using a neural network system based on density, point load, content of quarts and content of brittle minerals. Case 3 is rock indentation depth prediction. In this case, the rock indentation depth under indentation load is predicted by the established neural network system based on the indentation load on rock, indenter type and rock mechanical properties, such as uniaxial compressive strength, Young's modulus. Poisson's ratio, critical energy release rate and density. In all these cases, the neural network systems have been applied successfully. The testing results are satisfactory and better than the existing techniques.     

Continuous Monitoring of Pin Tip Wear and Penetration into Rock Surface Using a New Cerchar Abrasivity Testing Device

Evaluation of rock abrasivity is important when utilizing mechanized excavation in various mining and civil projects in hard rock. This is due to the need for proper selection of the rock cutting tools, estimation of the tool wear, machine downtime for cutter change, and costs. The Cerchar Abrasion Index (CAI) test is one of the simplest and most widely used methods for evaluating rock abrasivity. In this study, a new device for the determination of frictional forces and depth of pin penetration into the rock surface during a Cerchar test is discussed. The measured parameters were used to develop an analytical model for calculation of the size of the wear flat (and hence a continuous measure of CAI as the pin moves over the sample) and pin tip penetration into the rock during the test. Based on this model, continuous curves of CAI changes and pin tip penetration into the rock were plotted. Results of the model were used for introduction of a new parameter describing rock–pin interaction and classification of rock abrasion.     

Grain-size distribution of subglacial till and its realtion to glacial scrushing and abrasion

A subglacial till formed from a sandstone bedrock has a variable grain-size distribution which reflects its variable genesis. Glacial comminution processes were simulated by artificial mill experiments with fragments of the sandstone bedrock. Pure crushing caused disintegration along mineral boundaries into separate minerals, most mineral grains retaining their primary size during the crushing process. Abrasion produced cracks across the minerals and resulted in silt-sized rock flour. The experiments indicate that most of the sand-sized till material formed as a result of crushing, while the silt is mainly the result of abrasion. The sand and silt are both regarded as components resistant to further glacial comminution, but are formed by different comminution processes. By considering also the coarser till material, the general principles of glacial breakdown of resistant rocks from boulders to sand or silt can be illustrated. A matrix index and an abrasion index based on the mill experiments distinguish well between genetically different subglacial till types     

Use of backpropagation neural network for landslide monitoring: a case study in the higher Himalaya

Static and dynamic rock slope stability analyses were performed using a numerical discontinuum modelling technique for a 700-m high rock slope in western Norway. The rock slope has been investigated by the Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), which has been carrying out rock slide studies for the county Møre and Romsdal in western Norway. The purpose of numerical modelling was to estimate the volume of the rock mass that could potentially slide under static and dynamic forces. This estimation was required to assess the run-up heights (tsunami) in a fjord that could potentially be caused by the rockslide. Three cases have been simulated for predicting the behaviour of the rock slope. First, an initial static loading is applied in the numerical model to simulate the prevailing rock mass conditions at the site. Second, saturated and weathered joint conditions are modelled by reducing the residual friction angle along the discontinuities of the rock mass. In doing so, the model simulates the effect of degradation of discontinuities in the rock slope. Third, a dynamic loading, based on peak ground accelerations expected in the area, is applied to simulate dynamic earthquake conditions.

These numerical studies have provided some useful insights into the deformation mechanisms in the rock slope. Both sliding and rotation of blocks start to occur once the residual friction angle along the discontinuities is reduced and when the region is shaken by a strong earthquake. The results indicate that, due to variations in the inclination of discontinuities, the entire slope does not become unstable and that down-slope sliding and rotation of blocks occur mainly on the top layers of the slope. Within the range of parameter values considered for this study, it is unlikely that the whole rock slope can be destabilised. The study provides an illustration of how the geo-mechanical properties of a rock mass can be integrated in a discontinuum rock slope model, which is used for predicting the behaviour of the slope under existing environmental and earthquake conditions. This model has helped not only to better understand the dynamics of the rockslide but also to estimate the potential rock volume that can become unstable when subjected to static and dynamic loads.     

石灰岩高速滚动摩擦特性

滑面的摩擦特性是高速岩质滑坡动力学研究的关键问题之一。以典型脆性灰岩为研究对象,借助滚动磨损试验设备,开展不同压力和转速条件下干燥和湿润灰岩的滚动摩擦试验,研究岩石动态摩擦特性（摩擦系数和磨损率）。试验结果表明,干燥和湿润岩石的滚动摩擦系数分别与摩擦速率呈负相关和正相关,与法向压力关系不明显。对于干燥灰岩,滚动试件（滑体）和静止试件（滑床）的磨损率与摩擦速率分别呈正相关和负相关。对于湿润灰岩,磨损率与摩擦速率呈正相关。基于Hertz弹性接触理论,推导出摩擦斑处的最大压应力和拉应力,进而提出相应条件下脆性灰岩的摩擦碎裂机制。结论可为灰岩高速滑坡防灾减灾提供设计参数。     

Laboratory testing of coupled hydro-mechanical processes during rock deformation

This paper gives an overview of the published literature on laboratory testing of the stress dependence of rock-permeability. Additionally results of personal research on the stress dependence of the permeability of a low-porosity sandstone are presented. Stress-dependent permeability is examined in the laboratory under different stress fields and stress paths, depending on the intended application of the research. The most commonly applied stress paths are hydrostatic compression, triaxial compression, uniaxial strain conditions, and testing under a constant stress path. The published results of several studies on different rock types under one or more of the mentioned stress conditions are described and compared. A general trend of permeability evolution under hydrostatic and triaxial conditions can be established for sandstones and some crystalline rocks such as granite or rocksalt. For uniaxial strain tests and stress path tests the published results are limited to a few rock types (mainly sandstones). Therefore, a general conclusion for the stress dependence of permeability under these conditions is not possible. Electronic Publication     

三峡库区典型塌岸模式研究

三峡库区塌岸地质条件调查结果表明,不同的岸坡结构,蓄水后库岸的变形破坏形式塌岸模式,往往差别较大。本文根据现场调查成果,结合室内分析,总结归纳出三峡库区几种典型的塌岸模式,即冲蚀磨蚀型、坍塌型、崩塌(落)型、、滑移型和流土型。在此基础上,对不同塌岸模式的发展演进过程、发育分布特征,以及塌岸与岸坡岩土结构、地形地貌等的关系进行了深入系统地研究,提出了三峡库区典型塌岸发育的一般地质条件。     

空隙率对潜孔锤凿岩瞬态冲击过程的影响

潜孔锤的钻进过程是一个高度非线性、大变形、破碎岩石的过程,利用非线性有限元程序ANSYS/LS-DY-NA研究了在凿岩过程中,球齿凿入不同空隙率（塑性体积应变）岩石的冲击力特性。结果表明,岩石空隙率对钻头球齿与岩石之间的凿入冲击力幅值有很大影响,随着空隙率的增大,球齿凿入的冲击力显著减小,而对活塞与钻头间冲击力幅值影响甚微。通过ANSYS/LS-DYNA瞬态冲击数值模拟,形象地再现了潜孔锤钻凿系统冲击岩石发生侵入破坏的物理过程,为冲击碎岩瞬态研究提供了一个有效的分析方法。     

岩石磨蚀性的试验研究

岩石磨蚀性的试验研究在探矿工程以及其它采掘工程中都具有重要的意义。 本文详细地叙述了一种测定岩石磨蚀性的方法。作者利用钻铣磨床改装而成的装置,在规定的条件下（轴压力15kgf,转速400r/min,时间10min）,测定了25种岩石的磨蚀性指标;同时,还测定了在这些岩石中一字形钎头的磨次进尺、岩石的石英含量及粒度、岩石的压入硬度;并借助微机进行了数据处理与回归分析,对它们之间的相关性进行了评价。 实验与分析结果表明:利用简单易行的仪器来模拟工具在破碎岩石的过程中受到磨损的实质,在规定的条件下,测量标准物的磨损量,在数值上表征岩石的磨蚀性的方法是可行的;一字形钎头的磨次进尺是由岩石的磨蚀性和压入硬度共同决定的;影响岩石磨蚀性的主要因素是岩石的石英含量及粒度,岩石的压入硬度。     

High lateral strain ratio in jointed rock masses

Rock masses encountered in the field are jointed and highly anisotropic. An important manifestation of this characteristic of rock masses is that the blocks, when slipping, separate and create voids in the mass resulting in high lateral strain even under low axial stress. It has been shown in this study that the ratio of lateral to axial strain may be very high, especially, if the joints are critically oriented. The assumption of isotropic linearly elastic material is not applicable in such situations. This observation is based on the outcome of an extensive laboratory testing programme, in which a large number of specimens of a jointed rock mass with various joint configurations were tested under uniaxial loading conditions. The trends of experimental results for both lateral strain ratio and rock mass strength have also been verified through distinct element modelling. The reason for high lateral strains has been attributed to the creation of voids and also to the fact that permanent deformations due to slip commence along rock joints right from the start of loading process. A simple mechanistic model has also been suggested to explain the high values of lateral strain for rough and dilatant rock joints. The lateral strains in such situations are important in the design of rock bolts. An example from a recently completed hydroelectric project has also been discussed where high lateral strain was found to be responsible for excessive wall closure and failure of rock bolts.     

二叠系炭质页岩软弱夹层剪切蠕变特性研究

以西南灰岩山区二叠系炭质页岩软弱夹层为研究对象,开展了原生软岩、层间剪切带和滑带3个演化阶段的矿物组成成分、微结构和不同正应力水平的剪切蠕变力学特性分析。结果表明：软弱夹层在演化过程中,矿物组分发生改变,黏土矿物含量在原生软岩中小于5%,层间剪切带中在5%～10%之间,滑带中大于10%。微结构由致密变得疏松,颗粒间连接力减弱;软弱夹层的蠕变位移和蠕变速率随着剪应力增加而增大,呈非线性关系。在相同剪应力条件下,蠕变位移和蠕变速率的关系为：滑带>层间剪切带>原岩。长期剪切强度逐渐降低,黏聚力的降幅大于内摩擦角,对时间的敏感程度较高。为受软弱夹层控制的层状基岩滑坡的发育发展过程、失稳机制研究提供了重要借鉴意义。     

Characterization of Wear Mechanisms in Distorted Conical Picks After Coal Cutting

The interest in understanding the wear mechanisms of cemented carbide (CC) is not a new development. For a long time, there have been studies on different wear mechanisms under different coal/rock cutting conditions. These studies have helped improving the quality of CC, thereby preventing such wearing of tools. Due to highly unpredictable character of coal/rock, the wearing phenomena cannot be attributed to one single domain of conditions. However, one conclusion that can be drawn in this context is that, under similar working conditions, similar types of CC undergo similar nature of wearing process. An optimum combination of high wear resistance, strength and hardness has facilitated widespread application of CC in the field of mining engineering. The abrasive parts of the mining tools are made of CC materials. The current study is focussed on a detailed characterization of the wear mechanisms of conical picks, which are used for coal mining. Conical picks consist of a steel body with an inserted cone-shaped CC tip. After being used for a certain period of time, both, the CC tip and the steel body get distorted. In this study, selection of appropriate samples was followed by critical observation of them through field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). In the previous study, we explained the distortion process of both, the tip as well as the body, using the SEM images. For the present study, two samples were taken from our previous investigation for further analysis. Three other samples were also included in the present study. Seven different types of wear mechanisms, such as, cracking and crushing, cavity formation, coal intermixing, chemical degradation along with abrasion, long and deep cracks, heating effect and body deformation were observed in the five tool samples.     

Stress and energy reflection from impact on rocks using different indentors

Experiments have been conducted using an impact method with drop-hammers to obtain the required signals so that a detailed analysis of these data could be undertaken to quantify the drillability index of rocks. The dynamic stress waveform or reflected energy from the rock-drill bit interface is represented as a drillability index. This information enables the assessment of the characteristics of the rock under the bit. The results show that neither the amplitude nor the frequency spectra of the reflected stress wave significantly changes with the type of rock tested. However, the energy reflection coefficient varies with rock hardness. In the process of drilling the rocks, the energy reflection coefficient can increase by approximately 20% when the hardness or penetration resistance index of rock is doubled. This investigation confirmed the variation of reflected energy of rocks. For a single sharp or domed indentor, energy reflection decreases with penetration resistance index of the rock while it increases with this index in actual drilling or testing of percussive bits. In drill bit design and in tests for using a single indentor, a reasonable indentor shape should be adopted to correspond to a high energy reflection coefficient. By contrast, the energy reflection from a drill system or percussive bit should be minimised in practice.     

Abrasivity Assessment of Granitic Building Stones in Relation to Diamond Tool Wear Rate Using Mineralogy-Based Rock Hardness Indexes

The objective of the present study was to determine the abrasive wear potential of granites in circular sawing using some mineralogy-based rock hardness indexes. A literature study indicated that little or no attention has been given to assessing this kind of relationship in the field of stone processing. To accomplish this objective, sawing experiments were performed on nine different granites used widely as building and decorative stone materials. The measured sawblade-specific wear rates were correlated with three different rock hardness indexes attained by combining the percentage content of hard mineral constituents with their known hardness values. Statistical analysis of the experimental data revealed that rock hardness indexes that are based on both Vickers hardness number and Rosiwal hardness could be accepted as reliable indicators of granite abrasivity. These two indexes were also found to correlate well with the average power drawn during the process. However, the rock abrasivity index based on Mohs relative scratch hardness did not show statistically significant correlations with sawblade wear rate and power drawn. Although quartz percentage content is regarded as an important abrasivity parameter by practitioners, the observations made here indicate that consideration of quartz percentage content alone is not sufficient to describe the abrasive potential of granites, and thus incorporation of other hard mineral constituents could be more suitable.     

Dynamic Characteristics of Granite Subjected to Intermediate Loading Rate

Summary A large diameter split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) has been developed. This equipment is briefly described, together with a shaped striker that initiates a half-sine incident waveform to obtain the complete stress-strain relationship of the Bukit Timah granite at medium strain rate. Good constant strain rate was derived, and the dynamic complete stress-strain curves and energy absorption of the granite were measured at a strain rate between 20 and 60 per second. Repeated impact between 60–90% of the static strength of the granite was also conducted. Results from the tests show that the cumulative damage of the granite depends on the peak stress of the dynamic loads with a fixed duration. The dynamic fracture strength of the granite loaded at medium strain rate is directly proportional to the cube root of the strain rate. For the granite loaded at this strain rate, Youngs modulus is unchanged. Energy absorption of the samples loading to fragmentation determined its fragmented size distribution. At high strain rate, the rock possesses large energy absorption and the particle size of the fragments is much smaller.     

高压条件下含导电矿物的人工砂岩复电阻率研究

天然岩样由于孔隙结构复杂、骨架成分非单一,导致复电阻率研究困难。考虑到根据理想模型制作的人工岩样能够更好地进行实验研究,选用黄铜粉、黄铁矿砂、石墨粉、环氧树脂等材料,人工合成了不同矿物含量的柱状标准岩样,在不同高压条件下使用AutoLab-1000设备测量了标样的复电阻率,并基于Debye分解模型反演获得了人工砂岩标样的零频电阻率、极化率、时间常数等参数;详细讨论了各个模型参数与导电矿物含量、连通性、地层压力等因素的关系,研究发现地层压力和矿物成分对极化率有较大的影响。研究结果对认识高压条件下人工砂岩标样的电性特征具有实际意义。      

节理化岩体复合式滑移破坏的模型试验研究

针对节理化岩体的自身特点,提出沿岩体层面产生的应力集中以及层面与节理之间的残余完整岩桥破坏,将可能导致岩体产生复合式滑移破坏。在室内利用岩石三轴刚性伺服机,通过模型试验对岩体的层面和一组与层面正交的节理的情况进行模拟研究,分析了结构面性状和围压对复合式滑移破坏的影响,给出了在贯通性结构面（层面）倾角、非贯通性结构面的以及围压等因素共同作用下,节理化岩体发生复合式滑移破坏的条件以及破坏面特征。最后在与前人的试验资料进行对比分析的基础上得到可靠的结论,期望为在将来的实践工作中正确评估节理化岩体的破坏模式提供指导性意见。     

微波照射下火成岩升温特性和升温预测模型研究

微波辅助破岩可有效降低刀具磨损,提高破岩效率,具有广阔的发展前景.文章选取了10种火成岩进行微波加热试验,发现岩石的升温速率主要与岩石所含矿物的种类、含量,及岩石中的Fe元素含量有关.岩石所含矿物越敏感、含量越多,岩石中的Fe元素含量越大时,其升温速率越高.整体而言,火成岩中基性岩的升温速率最高、中性岩次之、酸性岩最低...     

长江巫峡岸坡座滑式危岩稳定性研究——以望霞座滑式危岩为例

通过对长江巫峡望霞座滑式危岩调查研究表明,在川东平行岭谷一系列平行展布的背斜山、向斜谷的窄岭宽谷地貌格局控制作用下,长江巫峡横石溪背斜岸坡近水平的灰岩与页岩、泥岩软硬互层结构为座滑式危岩的孕育提供了有利条件;对危岩软弱基座矿物成分 X-Ray 衍射的结果表明,绿泥石、云母、蒙脱石等层状结构硅酸盐矿物含量较高,其抗剪强度低,容易产生滑动,易沿主控结构面方向形成潜在破坏面,导致岩体整体剪出,发生座滑破坏。根据危岩发育机理,将三峡地区座滑式危岩破坏过程归纳为四个阶段,即：拉裂阶段、扩展阶段、失稳阶段和后期破坏阶段;并基于极限平衡理论和岩体结构理论,推导了座滑式危岩破坏的两组结构面的应力表达式,建立了座滑式危岩稳定性分析的力学模型。将该方法运用到望霞座滑式危岩案例计算表明,天然状况下危岩稳定系数为1.19,属于基本稳定岩体;在饱和状态下,随后缘裂隙充水高度的增加其稳定系数递减,当裂隙充水高度为10 m 时,稳定系数为1.15,当裂隙充水高度为20 m 时,稳定系数为1.07。