2008年6月一次华南暴雨过程的云分辨模拟分析

GCE(Goddard Cumulus Ensemble)模式中体现了云与云之间的相互作用,以及云与周围环境、长波辐射及示踪气体等之间的相互作用.模式可通过云中的水凝物等微物理量描述云体的生命史(发展、成熟、消散),并在此基础上通过引入地面降水诊断方程对降水的发展过程进行分析,因而降水过程实际上是云的发展过程的体现.本文所使用的二维云分辨模式(2DCRM)就是GCE模式的二维版本.利用该模式对2008年6月10-15日的华南暴雨过程进行模拟,分析了主要降水时段地面降水收支及热量收支在不同降水发展阶段的特征.模拟结果表明,在降水初始阶段,主要由局地大气增湿和水汽辐合率减小来抑制降水发展;在成熟阶段,局地水汽变化、水汽辐合、地面蒸发和局地水凝物变化均有正的贡献,降水强度达到最大;在衰退阶段,降水强度减小的主要原因是水汽辐合显著减小.在降水性层状云区,降水主要来自于水汽辐合,水汽的主要消耗项是局地水汽增加;在对流云区,降水主要来自于水汽辐合与局地大气变干,水汽的主要消耗过程是水凝物生成并向降水性层状云区输送.初始阶段和衰退阶段的局地大气温度变化率相对较小,成熟阶段区域平均大气冷却达到最强,区域平均大气温度变化率主要受区域平均的热辐散率与区域平均的潜热释放影响.     

地面降水诊断方程对降水过程的定量诊断

降水, 尤其是强降水 (暴雨), 对国家经济发展、 社会建设以及人民生活影响巨大, 然而由于同降水相关的物理过程非常复杂, 因此, 对降水的研究与预测十分困难。过去有关降水的研究大多关注水汽及水汽辐合 (输送) 的影响, 对与降水有关的水汽收支研究较多。Gao et al.(2005a) 率先将大气中水汽和云中水凝物 (云水、 雨水、 云冰、 雪及霰等) 的变化方程结合起来, 得到一个地面降水诊断方程, 从而可以将与降水有关的大气中水汽和云的演变过程在同一框架下定量地分析研究。本文利用一套21天长度的热带云分辨尺度模拟资料, 通过计算地面降水诊断方程中的局地水汽变化、 水汽辐合辐散率、 地面蒸发率以及云的变化率等各项, 分析了这些物理过程对降水的贡献, 指出局地水汽和云的变化率、 水汽辐合率, 地面蒸发率等均对地面降水有重要贡献。区域平均资料分析表明, 若水汽辐合与局地大气变干共存, 则产生强降水; 若存在水汽辐合但局地大气增湿或者存在水汽辐散但局地大气变干, 则引起中等强度降水; 若水汽辐散与局地大气增湿共存, 则造成弱降水。将降水划分成对流和层状降水进行分析发现, 对流降水率一般大于层状降水率, 水汽辐合是对流降水最主要的水汽源, 而局地大气变干则是层状降水最主要的水汽源。区域平均局地大气变干主要发生在降水性层状云区, 而最强的局地大气增湿则发生在对流云区和晴空区; 最强的局地云的消散发生在层状云区, 而最强的局地云的发展发生在对流云区。     

Precipitation responses to radiative processes of water- and ice-clouds: an equilibrium cloud-resolving modeling study

云辐射过程对制约天气与气候很重要。本文通过分析二维云分辨模式敏感性试验模拟平衡态平均资料研究降水对水云及冰云辐射过程的响应。模式给定的垂直速度为零。存在冰云辐射过程时去除水云辐射过程,以及去除冰云辐射过程会加强大气长波辐射冷却和降低空气温度及饱和混合比。饱和混合比的减少导致水汽凝结增加及其相关的潜热释放的增加,从而增加降雨。去除水云辐射过程通过减少长波辐射冷却增加对流层上部局地大气变暖。而增强的变暖通过霰的融化增强而增加降水源与降水。     

全球稳定增温1.5℃下北非夏季风降水的响应及其机理

利用第六次国际耦合模式比较计划(CMIP6)模式模拟结果,研究了21世纪末全球稳定增温1.5 ℃下北非夏季风降水的变化及机理。结果表明,全球稳定增温1.5 ℃较1985—2014年北非夏季风降水将增加0.26 mm/d,区域降水敏感度为4.8 ％/℃,且季风区北部降水增幅大于南部。基于水汽收支诊断发现热力项对季风区总降水增加作用明显,动力项对降水空间变化起重要作用。进一步分析当地水汽条件及相应环流场发现:在热力上,相对于1985—2014年,稳定增温1.5 ℃加强了北非地区表面温度及低层水汽输送,有利于当地维持更高的大气可降水量。在动力上,稳定增温1.5 ℃下显著的撒哈拉沙漠增温加大了海陆温度梯度,增强了对流层低层季风环流,同时非洲东风急流北移,使得季风区北部低层气流辐合加强,而高层热带东风急流减弱会导致季风区高层辐散运动减弱。总的来说,热力项增加了整个季风区降水,而动力项增强了季风区北部降水,减弱南部降水,主导了降水变化的空间格局。     

2016年北京“7·20”特大暴雨降水物理过程模拟诊断研究

利用WRF模式,结合三维降水诊断方程,对2016年北京“7·20”特大暴雨过程主降水时段的强降水物理过程开展了高分辨率模拟诊断分析。结果显示:降水峰值时刻前,强盛水汽辐合支撑强降水,同时加湿大气,后期,水汽辐合显著减弱,降水造成局地大气中水汽含量明显减少;降水峰值时刻前,水汽辐合、凝结和液相水凝物辐合共同助力强降水云系快速发展,后期,动力辐合作用减弱以及水凝物持续消耗和辐散,导致水凝物含量显著减少,降水系统逐步瓦解;主降水时段,垂直上升运动强度和垂直扩展范围逐步增大,并在降水峰值时刻达最大,之后减弱收缩;上升运动峰值高度从初期位于零度层上逐步降到零度层附近,进而回落到零度层之下,伴随“弱—强—弱”的降水强度变化;上升运动控制下,水凝物含量变化明显,但不同水凝物变化幅度不一,霰粒子和雨滴增幅最显著,并于降水峰值时刻含量达最大,随后减小,其他水凝物由于微物理转化和动力辐散等过程,导致其含量的变化幅度弱于上述两者。本文研究同时指出,不同微物理参数化方案对“7·20”特大暴雨强降水物理过程的可能影响以及不同强度降水物理过程的差异,值得深入研究。     

华南夏季降水两次年代际转折的水汽输送异常成因初探

本文利用NCEP/NCAR再分析资料和中国2374站日降水资料,通过水汽收支方程分解方法分析了华南夏季降水在1993~2002年时段年代际增多以及2003~2013年时段年代际减少的水汽输送特征及其成因。结果表明:1993~2002年时段（2003~2013年时段）,局地环流导致异常下沉（上升）气流,南亚高压偏东（偏西）和西太平洋副热带高压（简称副高）偏西（偏东）,菲律宾及副高西南侧水汽输送加强（减弱）,华南地区低层出现强的水汽辐合（辐散）,导致降水偏多（偏少）。华南地区夏季降水两次年代际变化主要与风速变化引起的水汽输送动力散度项的异常有关,同时还受到与比湿变化引起的水汽输送热力散度项异常、及天气尺度的涡旋引起的水汽输送涡流散度项异常影响。此外,研究发现水汽输送的异常与环流和海温异常均密切相关。     

影响青藏高原大气可降水量的因素及其变化特征

利用1979—2015年ERA-Interim全球0.5°×0.5°月平均再分析资料,计算了青藏高原水汽收支方程中的水汽局地变化项、辐散项、平流项和垂直项的相对贡献,并分析了各项的变化特征。结果表明:(1)在整层和近地层,水汽辐合辐散项占大气可降水量变化项的比例最高;在中层和高层,水汽平流项占大气可降水量变化项的比例最高。水汽辐合辐散与大气可降水量有更好的相关性。(2)水汽辐合辐散的空间分布整体为低层辐合高层辐散;在整层和近地层,高原东部为湿平流,其余大部分区域为干平流,在中层湿平流区域面积扩大,高层几乎都为干平流。(3)水汽辐合辐散年际变化表现为增加趋势,其中整层、近地层和中层增加趋势最明显;水汽平流年际变化表现为各层都呈下降趋势,其中中层和高层下降趋势最明显。     

两次高原切变线诱发低涡活动的个例分析

使用NCEP/NCAR再分析格点资料,对2007年7月4～6日切变线在高原上发展,并诱发两次高原低涡造成高原中部大雨的活动过程进行了诊断分析。通过涡度收支等物理量计算,结果表明,垂直输送项和水平辐合辐散项对两次高原低涡的发展增强都起主要作用,在低涡不同发展阶段,二者贡献各有不同;在低涡二消亡阶段,水平平流项贡献增大。视热源和视水汽汇分析表明,这次降水过程以对流性降水为主,垂直运动的负值中心与视热源、视水汽汇中心对应,变化趋势基本一致,表明在降水过程大气加热是与大气上升运动密切相关,对流层中层的加热引起对流层低层抽吸作用会促进高原涡的发展,大气热源主要是降水过程的凝结潜热释放,水汽凝结起决定性作用。     

重庆2次西南涡暴雨过程的类比分析

基于AREM模式分别对2010年夏季发生在重庆的两次西南涡暴雨过程进行数值模拟,并利用模拟结果对暴雨过程的动力和热力场演变以及涡度收支变化进行分析。结果表明:1)西南涡造成的降水落区位于低涡中心附近,整个降水过程雨带分布与低涡移动路径相一致;2)整层水汽通量辐合极值出现时间超前于最大降水出现时间,降水增强阶段,整层水汽呈增长趋势,说明存在稳定的水汽输送;3)最强辐合出现时间略早于最大正涡度出现的时间,说明大气辐合能够促进涡度的发展,辐合中心比正涡度中心位置低;4)涡度辐合辐散项对低涡的发展加强起最主要的作用;涡度平流项和涡度辐合辐散项的作用集中体现在中低层大气中,而垂直对流项和扭转项的作用则在中高层更为明显;降水的强弱与涡度变率的大小及伸展高度相对应。     

冰晶增长对热量收支的影响

使用二维云分辨模式研究冰晶增长过程(云水到冰晶的冻结增长和通过水汽凝华冰晶到雪的增长)对热量收支的影响。采用4种冰晶增长参数化方案模拟了热带到中纬度地区的4个降水个例。研究发现:(1)高冰核浓度的ZENG方案和SHEN方案引起对流层中上层辐射加热增多,这与它们模拟的冰晶在对流层中上层增多有关。(2)高冰核浓度的ZENG方案导致模拟区域—平均的局地温度变化在对流层上层出现异常减小值,这与它在热带个例中导致垂直热量通量辐合减少和在中纬度个例中导致潜热加热减少有关。(3)尽管高冰核浓度的ZENG方案引起质量加权平均的辐射加热增多,但是它在热带个例中引起地表感热通量减少和在中纬度个例中引起潜热加热减少,最终导致4种参数化方案计算的模拟区域—质量加权平均的局地温度变化基本一致。     

EVALUATION OF CONVECTIVE-STRATIFORM RAINFALL SEPARATION SCHEMES BY PRECIPITATION AND CLOUD STATISTICS

In this study,two convective-stratiform rainfall partitioning schemes are evaluated using precipitation and cloud statistics for different rainfall types categorized by applying surface rainfall equation on grid-scale data from a two-dimensional cloud-resolving model simulation.One scheme is based on surface rainfall intensity whereas the other is based on cloud content information.The model is largely forced by the large-scale vertical velocity derived from the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment(TOGA COARE).The results reveal that over 40% of convective rainfall is associated with water vapor divergence,which primarily comes from the rainfall type with local atmospheric drying and water hydrometeor loss/convergence,caused by precipitation and evaporation of rain.More than 40% of stratiform rainfall is related to water vapor convergence,which largely comes from the rainfall type with local atmospheric moistening and hydrometeor loss/convergence attributable to water clouds through precipitation and the evaporation of rain and ice clouds through the conversion from ice hydrometeor to water hydrometeor.This implies that the separation methods based on surface rainfall and cloud content may not clearly separate convective and stratiform rainfall.     

An Analysis of Thermally-Related Surface Rainfall Budgets Associated with Convective and Stratiform Rainfall

Both water vapor and heat processes play key roles in producing surface rainfall.While the water vapor effects of sea surface temperature and cloud radiative and microphysical processes on surface rainfall have been investigated in previous studies,the thermal effects on rainfall are analyzed in this study using a series of two-dimensional equilibrium cloud-resolving model experiments forced by zonally-uniform,constant,large-scale zonal wind and zero large-scale vertical velocity.The analysis of thermally-related surface rainfall budget reveals that the model domain mean surface rain rate is primarily associated with the mean infrared cooling rate.Convective rainfall and transport of hydrometeor concentration from convective regions to raining stratiform regions corresponds to the heat divergence over convective regions,whereas stratiform rainfall corresponds to the transport of hydrometeor concentration from convective regions and heat divergence over raining stratiform regions.The heat divergence over convective regions is mainly balanced by the heat convergence over rainfall-free regions,which is,in turn,offset by the radiative cooling over rainfall-free regions.The sensitivity experiments of rainfall to the effects of sea surface temperature and cloud radiative and microphysical processes show that the sea surface temperature and cloud processes affect convective rainfall through the changes in infrared cooling rate over rainfall-free regions and transport rate of heat from convective regions to rainfall-free regions.     

Cloud Microphysical Budget Associated with Torrential Rainfall During the Landfall of Severe Tropical Storm Bilis (2006)

Effects of vertical wind shear, radiation, and ice clouds on cloud microphysical budget associated with torrential rainfall during landfall of severe tropical storm Bilis (2006) are investigated by using a series of analysis of two-day grid-scale sensitivity experiment data. When upper-tropospheric upward motions and lower-tropospheric downward motions occur on 15 July 2006, the removal of vertical wind shear and ice clouds increases rainfall contributions from the rainfall type (CM) associated with positive net condensation and hydrometeor loss/convergence, whereas the exclusion of cloud radiative effects and cloud-radiation interaction reduces rainfall contribution from CM. The elimination of vertical wind shear and cloud-radiation interaction increases rainfall contribution from the rainfall type (Cm) associated with positive net condensation and hydrometeor gain/divergence, but the removal of cloud radiative effects and ice clouds decreases rainfall contribution from Cm. The enhancements in rainfall contribution from the rainfall type (cM) associated with negative net condensation and hydrometeor loss/convergence are caused by the exclusion of cloud radiative effects, cloud-radiation interaction and ice clouds, whereas the reduction in rainfall contribution from cM results from the removal of vertical wind shear. When upward motions appear throughout the troposphere on 16 July, the exclusion of all these effects increases rainfall contribution from CM, but generally decreases rainfall contributions from Cm and cM.     

Effects of Vertical Wind Shear on the Pre-Summer Heavy Rainfall Budget:A Cloud-Resolving Modeling Study

This study investigates the effects of vertical wind shear on the torrential rainfall response to the large-scale forcing using a rainfall separation analysis of a pair of two-dimensional cloud-resolving model sensitivity experiments for a pre-summer heavy rainfall event over southern China from 3-8 June 2008 coupled with National Centers for Environmental Prediction(NCEP)/Global Data Assimilation System(GDAS) data.The rainfall partitioning analysis based on the surface rainfall budget indicates that the exclusion of vertical wind shear decreases the contribution to total rainfall from the largest contributor,which is the rainfall associated with local atmospheric drying,water vapor divergence,and hydrometeor loss/convergence,through the reduction of the rainfall area and reduced rainfall during the rainfall event.The removal of vertical wind shear increases the contribution to total rainfall from the rainfall associated with local atmospheric drying,water vapor convergence,and hydrometeor loss/convergence through the expansion of the rainfall area and enhanced rainfall.The elimination of vertical wind shear enhances heavy rainfall and expands its area,whereas it reduces moderate rainfall and its area.     

Water Cycle and Microphysical Processes Associated with a Mesoscale Convective Vortex System in the Dabie Mountain Area

The water vapor budget and the cloud microphysical processes associated with a heavy rainfall system in the Dabie Mountain area in June 2008 were analyzed using mesoscale reanalysis data(grid resolution 0.03 × 0.03,22 vertical layers,1-h intervals),generated by amalgamating the local analysis and prediction system(LAPS).The contribution of each term in the water vapor budget formula to precipitation was evaluated.The characteristics of water vapor budget and water substances in various phase states were evaluated and their differences in heavy and weak rainfall areas were compared.The precipitation calculated from the total water vapor budget accounted for 77% of actual precipitation;surface evaporation is another important source of water vapor.Water vapor within the domain of interest mainly came from the lower level along the southern boundary and the lower-middle level along the western boundary.This altitude difference for water vapor flux was caused by different weather systems.The decrease of local water vapor in the middle-lower layer in the troposphere during the system development stage also contributed to precipitation.The strength and the layer thickness of water vapor convergence and the content of various water substances in the heavy rainfall areas were obviously larger than in the weak rainfall areas.The peak values of lower-level water vapor convergence,local water vapor income,and the concentration of cloud ice all preceded the heaviest surface rainfall by a few hours.     

SENSITIVITY OF PRECIPITATION TO SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE AND ITS DIURNAL VARIATION: A PARTITIONING ANALYSIS BASED ON SURFACE RAINFALL BUDGET

The sensitivity of precipitation to sea surface temperature(SST) and its diurnal variation is investigated through a rainfall partitioning analysis of two-dimensional cloud-resolving model experiments based on surface rainfall budget.For all experiments,the model is set up using zero vertical velocity and a constant zonal wind and is integrated over 40 days to reach quasi-equilibrium states.The 10-day equilibrium grid-scale simulation data and a time-invariant SST of 29°C are used in the control experiment.In the sensitivity experiments,time-invariant SSTs are 27°C and 31°C with an average value of 29°C when the minimum and maximum values of diurnal SST differences are 1°C and 2°C,respectively.The results show that the largest contribution to total rainfall is from the rainfall with water vapor convergence and local atmospheric drying and hydrometeor gain/divergence(~30%) in all experiments.When SST increases from 27°C to 29°C,the contribution from water vapor convergence decreases.The increase of SST reduces the contribution of the rainfall with water vapor convergence primarily through the decreased contribution of the rainfall with local atmospheric drying and hydrometeor gain/divergence and the rainfall with local atmospheric moistening and hydrometeor loss/convergence.The inclusion of diurnal variation of SST with the diurnal difference of 1°C decreases the rainfall contribution from water vapor convergence primarily through the decreased contribution of the rainfall with local atmospheric moistening and hydrometeor loss/convergence.The contribution of the rainfall from water vapor convergence is barely changed as the diurnal difference of SST increases from 1°C to 2°C.     

Water Vapor, Cloud, and Surface Rainfall Budgets Associated with the Landfall of Typhoon Krosa （2007）： A Two-Dimensional Cloud-Resolving Modeling Study

Water vapor, cloud, and surface rainfall budgets associated with the landfall of Typhoon Krosa on 6--8 October 2007 are analyzed based on a two-dimensional cloud-resolving model simulation. The model is integrated with imposed zonally-uniform vertical velocity, zonal wind, horizontal temperature, and vapor advection from NCEP/Global Data Assimilation System (GDAS) data. The simulation data that are validated with observations are examined to study physical causes associated with surface rainfall processes during the landfall. The time- and domain-mean analysis shows that when Krosa approached the eastern coast of China on 6 October, the water vapor convergence over land caused a local atmospheric moistening and a net condensation that further produced surface rainfall and an increase of cloud hydrometeor concentration. Meanwhile, latent heating was balanced by advective cooling and a local atmospheric warming. One day later, the enhancement of net condensation led to an increase of surface rainfall and a local atmospheric drying, while the water vapor convergence weakened as a result of the landfall-induced deprivation of water vapor flux. At the same time, the latent heating is mainly compensated the advective cooling. Further weakening of vapor convergence on 8 October enhanced the local atmospheric drying while the net condensation and associated surface rainfall was maintained. The latent heating is balanced by advective cooling and a local atmospheric cooling.     

RADIATIVE AND MICROPHYSICAL EFFECTS OF ICE CLOUDS ON A TORRENTIAL RAINFALL EVENT OVER HUNAN, CHINA

The radiative and microphysical effects of ice clouds on a torrential rainfall event over Hunan,China in June 2004 are investigated by analyzing the sensitivity of cloud-resolving model simulations.The model is initialized by zonally-uniform vertical velocity,zonal wind,horizontal temperature and vapor advection from National Centers for Environmental Prediction(NCEP) /National Center for Atmospheric Research(NCAR) reanalysis data.The exclusion of radiative effects of ice clouds increases model domain mean surface rain rates through the increase in the mean net condensation associated with the increase in the mean radiative cooling during the onset phase and the increases in the mean net condensation and the mean hydrometeor loss during the mature phase.The decrease in the mean rain rate corresponds to the decreased mean net condensation and associated mean latent heat release as the enhanced mean radiative cooling by the removal of radiative effects of ice clouds cools the mean local atmosphere during the decay phase.The removal of microphysical effects of ice clouds decreases the mean rain rates through the decrease in the mean net condensation during the onset phase,while the evolution of mean net condensation and the mean hydrometeor changes from decrease to increase during the mature phase.The reduction in the mean rain rate is primarily associated with the mean hydrometeor change in the absence of microphysical effects of ice clouds during the decay phase.     

Differences between Convective and Stratiform Precipitation Budgets in a Torrential Rainfall Event

Differences in rainfall budgets between convective and stratiform regions of a torrential rainfall event were investigated using high-resolution simulation data produced by the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model. The convective and stratiform regions were reasonably separated by the radar-based convective–stratiform partitioning method, and the threedimensional WRF-based precipitation equation combining water vapor and hydrometeor budgets was further used to analyze the rainfall budgets. The results showed that the magnitude of precipitation budget processes in the convective region was one order larger than that in the stratiform region. In convective/stratiform updraft regions, precipitation was mainly from the contribution of moisture-related processes, with a small negative contribution from cloud-related processes. In convective/stratiform downdraft regions, cloud-related processes played positive roles in precipitation, while moisture-related processes made a negative contribution. Moisture flux convergence played a dominant role in the moisture-related processes in convective or stratiform updraft regions, which was closely related to large-scale dynamics. Differences in cloud-related processes between convective and stratiform regions were more complex compared with those in moisture-related processes.Both liquid-and ice-phase microphysical processes were strong in convective/stratiform updraft regions, and ice-phase processes were dominant in convective/stratiform downdraft regions. There was strong net latent heating within almost the whole troposphere in updraft regions, especially in the convective updraft region, while the net latent heating(cooling) mainly existed above(below) the zero-layer in convective/stratiform downdraft regions.     

A Simulation Study on the Characteristics of Cloud Microphysics of Heavy Rainfall in the Meiyu Front

A heavy rainfall in the Meiyu front during 4--5 July 2003 is simulated by use of the non-hydrostatic mesoscale model MM5 (V3--6) with different explicit cloud microphysical parameterization schemes. The characteristics of microphysical process of convective cloud are studied by the model outputs. The simulation study reveals that: (1) The mesoscale model MM5 with explicit cloud microphysical process is capable of simulating the instant heavy rainfall in the Meiyu front, the rainfall simulation could be improved significantly as the model resolution is increased, and the Goddard scheme is better than the Reisner or Schultz scheme. (2) The convective cloud in the Meiyu front has a comprehensive structure composed of solid, liquid and vapor phases of water, the mass density of water vapor is the largest one in the cloud; the next one is graupel, while those of ice, snow, rain water and the cloud water are almost same. The height at which mass density peaks for different hydrometeors is almost unchangeable during the heavy rainfall period. The mass density variation of rain water, ice, and graupel are consistent with that of ground precipitation, while that of water vapor in the low levels is 1--2 h earlier than the precipitation. (3) The main contribution to the water vapor budget in the atmosphere is the convergence of vapor flux through advection and convection, which provides the main vapor source of the rainfall. Besides the basic process of the auto-conversion of cloud water to rain water, there is an additional cloud microphysical process that is essential to the formation of instant heavy rainfall, the ice-phase crystals are transformed into graupels first and then the increased graupels mix with cloud water and accelerates the conversion of cloud water to rain water. The positive feedback mechanism between latent heat release and convection is the main cause to maintain and develop the heavy precipitation.