阿尔卑斯山山体效应及其对林线的影响分析

阿尔卑斯山是欧亚大陆上著名的山地,对欧洲的地理生态格局具有重要的影响。山体效应产生的原因在于隆起的高原或山地吸收了更多的太阳辐射。因此,论文以阿尔卑斯山为研究对象,利用收集到的气象台站观测数据、林线、数字高程数据,以及基于半球视域算法计算得到的太阳辐射数据等,分析阿尔卑斯山气温的空间分布格局以及最热月、最冷月、全年的太阳辐射量,同时以太阳辐射作为山体效应的代用因子,采用逐步回归分析方法构建了阿尔卑斯山林线分布模型,探究该山地的山体效应及其对林线的影响。研究结果表明：① 阿尔卑斯山具有明显的山体效应,山体内部的太阳辐射量远高于山体边缘地区,这也是山体内部气温和林线高度都高于山体边缘地区的主要原因。最热月、最冷月和全年总太阳辐射量在山体内部比边缘地区分别高10~20、20~40和200~400 kWh/m²。② 太阳辐射能更好地定量化山体效应,以太阳辐射为山体效应代用因子建立的林线分布模型具有更高的精度。与基于气温、降水构建的林线分布模型(R²= 0.522)相比,该模型具有更高的模拟精度(R² = 0.736),同时太阳辐射对林线分布的贡献率最大(1月、7月太阳辐射的贡献率分别为34.75%、27.82%),超过了气温和降水的贡献率(分别为26.24%和11.17%)。     

青藏高原增温效应对垂直带谱的影响

青藏高原作为巨大的热源对亚洲气候、高原生态格局等产生重要的影响。但青藏高原的增温效应最初是20世纪50年代因其对亚洲气候的重大影响而被发现的,因此,大量的相关研究主要集中在高原夏季增温对气候的影响方面,而高原增温效应对高原地理生态格局的影响研究却非常少。利用收集到的气象台站观测数据、基于MODIS地表温度估算的青藏高原气温数据、林线数据和垂直带谱数据及DEM数据,通过对比分析高原内部与外围山区垂直带谱高度的变化及林线的分布规律,并以高原内部与边缘地区相同海拔高度上的气温差、最热月10℃等温线、15℃·月的温暖指数等温度指标来定量描述高原的增温效应及其对垂直带谱和林线的影响。研究结果表明:1由于青藏高原增温效应的影响,高原内部气温和生长季长度高于边缘地区,相同海拔高度上,高原内部各月气温比边缘地区高2~7℃;在4500 m高度上,高原内部各月气温比四川盆地高3.58℃(4月)到6.63℃(6月);最热月10℃等温线的海拔高度也从东部边缘(4000 m以下)向内部逐渐升高,在拉萨-改则一带则可出现在4600~5000 m的高度;15℃·月的温暖指数的海拔高度也从边缘向内部逐渐升高,在4500 m的海拔高度上,横断山区、高原南部和中部地区的温暖指数均能达到15℃·月以上,而其它边缘地区则都低于15℃·月。2青藏高原垂直带谱和林线的分布规律与增温效应的规律极其一致,即均从东部边缘向内部逐渐升高,表明增温效应抬升了高原内部垂直带谱的分布范围和高度:山地暗针叶林带的分布范围在高原内部比东部边缘地区高1000~1500 m;山地草甸带的分布范围在高原内部比东部边缘高出700~900 m;高原内部林线比外围地区高500~1000 m左右。最热月10℃等温线和15℃·月温暖指数的分布规律与林线分布规律一致,表明高原增温效应对垂直带谱的分布具有重要的影响。     

青藏高原气温空间分布规律及其生态意义

作为世界第三极的青藏高原,其巨大的块体产生了显著的夏季增温作用,对亚洲乃至全球气候都具有重大影响。但由于高原自然条件严酷,山区气象观测台站很少,气象资料极度匮乏;如果依靠台站数据进行空间插值获得高原气温的空间分布数据,会由于插值点过少而产生较大误差并可能掩盖一些空间信息,因而难以全面反映高原气温的空间分布规律。利用基于MODIS地表温度数据估算的青藏高原气温数据,详细分析各月气温及重要等温线的空间分布格局,并结合林线和雪线数据,初步探讨了高原气温空间分布格局对高原地理生态格局的重要影响。研究表明：① 等温线的海拔高度自高原东北部、东部边缘向内部逐渐升高,等温线在高原内部比东部边缘高500~2000 m,表明相同海拔高度上气温自边缘向高原内部逐渐升高。② 高原西北部的羌塘高原、可可西里为高原的寒冷区,全年有7个月的气温低于0 ℃,3~4个月的气温低于-10 ℃;青藏高原南部（喜马拉雅山北坡—冈底斯山南坡）和中部（冈底斯山北坡—唐古拉山南坡）是高原的温暖区,全年有5个月的气温能达到5~10 ℃,有3个月的气温能超过10 ℃,尤其是拉萨—林芝—左贡一带在3500~4000 m以下的地区最冷月均温也能高于0 ℃。③ 北半球最高雪线和林线分别分布于高原的西南部和东南部,表明高原气温空间分布特征对本地的地理生态格局具有重要影响。     

青藏高原山体效应的遥感估算及其生态效应分析

山体效应是隆起的山体所产生的热力效应,其结果之一就是相同垂直带界限自外围向内部有升高的趋势。本文结合MOD11C3地表温度产品和地面144个气象台站实测气象数据,估算青藏高原内外相同高度上的温差(也即高原山体效应值)。具体结论如下:(1)最大温差(10.04℃~11.70℃)出现在高原中南部,即雅鲁藏布江以北藏北高原以南。由此为核心向北、向东、向西均逐渐减小;(2)数据点上同高度内外温差与局部基面高度有紧密关系,基面高度每抬升100 m,温差增加约0.051℃,并有加速增大的趋势;(3)山体基面高度与山体效应存在明显的线性关系,其决定系数R2高达0.5306。但山体基面高度最高的区域山体效应并非最大,说明还有其他因子影响山体效应的大小,可能的因子包括大气湿度、纬度、地形开阔程度等,在建立山体效应数字模型时必须加以考虑;(4)高原山体效应对雪线分布高度的抬升作用更甚于其对林线。山体效应估值最大的区域,分布着6 000 m以上极高雪线;最高林线(4 900 m)分布于本研究中山体效应估算值较低的相对多雨区,因为林线的发育还要求一定的降水量。     

科罗拉多落基山脉山体效应定量化研究

落基山脉作为北美最大的内陆山地,其山体效应对林线分布具有很大影响,导致林线海拔远高于周围内陆山体及其他海岸山地。然而,以往落基山脉山体效应研究多集中于定性研究,但是山体效应如何量化,如何根据落基山脉的地形气候条件构建区域山体效应的定量化模型,目前鲜有研究。通过分析台站处山体增温及量化落基山脉山体效应的影响因子,并计算最热月均温10℃等温线的海拔高度,来定量化地估算科罗拉多落基山脉山体效应值大小及其对林线分布的影响。结果表明:(1)用山体增温值表示山体效应大小是合理且比较理想的指标。科罗拉多落基山脉增温显著,所有台站的增温均值为2.07℃,增温幅度为0.78~4.29℃。(2)科罗拉多落基山脉山体效应的主要影响因素为山体基面高度和降水大陆度,二者与山体增温构建的线性拟合模型具有较高的解释能力,判定系数高达71.2%。(3)科罗拉多落基山脉不同纬度带山体内外最热月10℃等温线分布高度对比表明,山体内部理想林线高度均高于山体外部的理想林线分布,内外分布差异为400~700 m。定量分析科罗拉多落基山脉的山体效应模型,优化了区域尺度的山体效应模型精度,有助于深入认识山体效应及其对垂直带分布的影响。     

基于MODIS数据的青藏高原气温与增温效应估算

利用2001-2007 年MODIS地表温度数据、137 个气象观测台站数据和ASTERGDEM数据, 采用普通线性回归分析方法(OLS)及地理加权回归分析方法(GWR), 研究了高原月均地表温度与气温的相关关系, 最终选择精度较高的GWR分析方法, 建立了高原气温与地表温度、海拔高度的回归模型。各月气温GWR回归模型的决定系数(Adjusted R²) 都达到了0.91 以上(0.91~0.95), 标准误差(RMSE) 介于1.16~1.58℃;约70%以上的台站各月残差介于-1.5~1.5℃之间, 80%以上的台站的残差介于-2~2℃之间。根据该模型, 估算了青藏高原气温, 并在此基础上, 将高原及周边地区7 月份月均气温转换到4500 m和5000 m海拔高度上, 对比分析高原内部相对于外围地区的增温效应。研究结果表明:(1) 利用GWR方法, 结合地面台站的观测数据和MODIS Ts、DEM等, 对高原气温估算的精度高于以往普通回归分析模型估算的精度(RMSE=2~3℃), 精度可以提高到1.58℃;(2) 高原夏半年海拔5000 m左右的高山区气温能达到0℃以上, 尤其是7 月份, 海拔4000~5500 m的高山区的气温仍能达到10℃左右, 为山地森林的发育提供了温度条件, 使高原成为北半球林线分布最高的地方;(3) 高原的增温效应非常突出, 初步估算, 在相同的海拔高度上高原内部气温要比外围地区高6~10℃。     

基于MODIS的秦巴山地气温估算与山体效应分析

秦巴山地作为横亘在中国南北过渡带的巨大山脉,其山体效应对中国中部植被和气候的非地带性分布产生了重要的影响,山体内外同海拔的温差是表征山体效应大小较为理想的指标。本研究结合MODIS地表温度（LST）数据、STRM-1 DEM数据和秦巴山地的118个气象站点的观测数据,分别采用普通线性回归（OLS）和地理加权回归（GWR）两种分析方法对秦巴山地的气温进行估算,在此基础上将秦巴山地各月气温转换为同海拔（1500 m,秦巴山地平均海拔）气温,对比分析秦巴山地的山体效应。结果表明：① 相比OLS分析,GWR分析方法的精度更高,各月回归模型的R ²均在0.89以上,均方根误差（RMSE）在0.68~0.98 ℃之间。② 利用GWR估算得到的同海拔气温,从东向西随海拔升高呈现了明显的升高的趋势,秦岭西部山地比东段升高约6 ℃和4.5 ℃;大巴山西部山地年均和7月份同海拔的气温较东段升高约8 ℃和5 ℃。③ 从南向北,以汉江为分界,秦岭与大巴山的同海拔的气温均呈现出由山体边缘向内部升高的趋势。④ 秦巴山地西部大起伏高山,秦岭大起伏高中山和大巴山大起伏中山,相比豫西汉中中山谷地,各月均同海拔气温分别升高了约3.85~9.28 ℃、1.49~3.34 ℃和0.43~3.05 ℃,平均温差约为3.50 ℃,说明秦巴山地大起伏中高山的山体效应十分明显。     

山体基面高度对欧亚大陆东南部林线分布的影响——山体效应定量化研究

根据收集到173个林线数据,采用纬度、经度和基面高度的三元一次方程拟合欧亚大陆东南部林线分布,计算各自的标准回归系数和贡献率,以此来确定山体基面高度(山体效应的简明表达形式)对林线分布高度的影响。结果表明,纬度、经度和山体基面高度对林线分布高度的贡献率分别为30.60%、26.53%、42.87%。以北纬32o为界线,对其以北、以南区域也分别进行了分析,基面高度的贡献率达到24.10%和39.11%。分析不同尺度和区域山体基面高度作用于林线的贡献率不难发现:在欧亚大陆东南部以基面高度代表的山体效应对于林线高度的影响显著,明显地超过了纬度和经度。基面高度的作用受气候条件和海陆位置影响较小,不论大陆内部或沿海,基面高度分异对山地垂直带分异的影响都相对独立和稳定。该结果定量地表明了山体效应对林线分布高度的重要作用。     

青藏高原山体效应对近地表层垂直大气昼夜温差的影响

青藏高原巨大隆起不仅塑造了欧亚大陆的气候格局,也深远地影响了高原的地理生态格局。青藏高原巨大隆起而产生的山体效应不仅可对近地表温度产生显著影响,其对近地表层垂直大气亦可产生显著作用,然而目前仍缺乏这一方面的研究。因此,本研究基于MODIS大气廓线数据产品,以昼夜温差为切入点,分析了青藏高原不同季节、不同气压面（500～200hPa）的昼夜温差差异。结果表明：(1)青藏高原内部不同季节、不同气压面高度处的昼夜温差均大于外部地区,整体符合山体效应的格局。(2)青藏高原海拔越高,不同季节的垂直层昼夜温差越大。(3)随着气压面高度的增加（500～200 hPa）,海拔对冬季大气昼夜温差的影响逐渐降低,对春季、夏季和秋季的影响程度先升高后降低,作用最大处分别出现在300 hPa、250 hPa和300 hPa。     

山体效应对北半球林线分布的影响分析

通过搜集整理了北半球516 个林线数据, 结合WorldClim 气象数据计算了林线数据点上的大陆度, 并依据SRTM高程数据提取了林线处的山体基面高度(作为山体效应的代用因子), 然后以纬度、大陆度和山体基面高度为解释变量, 建立三元回归模型。结果表明:线性回归模型的判定系数R²为0.904, 二次回归模型的R²高达0.912。相比先前不考虑基面高度的林线分布模型(R² = 0.79), 纳入了山体基面高度的林线分布模型能够更加有效的拟合半球尺度的林线分布; 结果还表明, 山体基面高度对北半球林线高度分布的贡献率达到了48.94% (p =0.000), 而纬度和大陆度分别为45.02% (p = 0.000) 和6.04% (p = 0.000)。这揭示了山体效应对半球尺度林线分布具有重要的影响。基面高度在北美洲地区对林线高度的贡献率最大(50.49%, p=0.000), 在欧亚大陆东部地区为48.73% (p = 0.000), 在欧亚大陆西部地区为43.6% (p=0.000)。这一结果说明山体效应对林线分布高度的影响虽有区域差异, 但都有较高的贡献率。     

Implications of mass elevation effect for the altitudinal patterns of global ecology

The varied altitudinal gradient of climate and vegetation is further complicated by mass elevation effect (MEE), especially in high and extensive mountain regions. However, this effect and its implications for mountain altitudinal belts have not been well studied until recently. This paper provides an overview of the research carried out in the past 5 years. MEE is virtually the heating effect of mountain massifs and can be defined as the temperature difference on a given elevation between inside and outside of a mountain mass. It can be digitally modelled with three factors of intra-mountain base elevation (MBE), latitude and hygrometric continentality; MBE usually acts as the primary factor for the magnitude of MEE and, to a great extent, could represent MEE. MEE leads to higher treelines in the interior than in the outside of mountain masses. It makes montane forests to grow at 4800–4900 m and snowlines to develop at about 6000 m in the southern Tibetan Plateau and the central Andes, and large areas of forests to live above 3500 m in a lot of high mountains of the world. The altitudinal distribution of global treelines can be modelled with high precision when taking into account MEE and the result shows that MEE contributes the most to treeline distribution pattern. Without MEE, forests could only develop upmost to about 3500 m above sea level and the world ecological pattern would be much simpler. The quantification of MEE should be further improved with higher resolution data and its global implications are to be further revealed.     

山体效应及其对林线分布的影响(英文)

The concept of mass elevation effect(massenerhebungseffect,MEE) was intro-duced by A.de Quervain about 100 years ago to account for the observed tendency for temperature-related parameters such as tree line and snowline to occur at higher elevations in the central Alps than on their outer margins.It also has been widely observed in other ar-eas of the world,but there have not been significant,let alone quantitative,researches on this phenomenon.Especially,it has been usually completely neglected in developing fitting mod-els of timberline elevation,with only longitude or latitude considered as impacting factors.This paper tries to quantify the contribution of MEE to timberline elevation.Considering that the more extensive the land mass and especially the higher the mountain base in the interior of land mass,the greater the mass elevation effect,this paper takes mountain base elevation(MBE) as the magnitude of MEE.We collect 157 data points of timberline elevation,and use their latitude,longitude and MBE as independent variables to build a multiple linear regres-sion equation for timberline elevation in the southeastern Eurasian continent.The results turn out that the contribution of latitude,longitude and MBE to timberline altitude reach 25.11%,29.43%,and 45.46%,respectively.North of northern latitude 32°,the three factors’ contribu-tion amount to 48.50%,24.04%,and 27.46%,respectively;to the south,their contribution is 13.01%,48.33%,and 38.66%,respectively.This means that MBE,serving as a proxy indi-cator of MEE,is a significant factor determining the elevation of alpine timberline.Compared with other factors,it is more stable and independent in affecting timberline elevation.Of course,the magnitude of the actual MEE is certainly determined by other factors,including mountain area and height,the distance to the edge of a land mass,the structures of the mountains nearby.These factors need to be included in the study of MEE quantification in the future.This paper could help build up a high-accuracy and multi-scale elevation model for alpine timberline and even other altitudinal belts.     

Variations of the alpine precipitation from an ice core record of the Laohugou glacier basin during 1960-2006 in western Qilian Mountains,China

The net accumulation record of ice core is one of the most reliable indicators for reconstructing precipitation changes in high mountains. A 20.12 m ice core was drilled in 2006 from the accumulation zone of Laohugou Glacier No.12 in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, China. We obtained the precipitation from the ice core net accumulation during 1960-2006, and found out the relationship between Laohugou ice core record and other data from surrounding sites of the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. Results showed that during 1960-2006, the precipitation in the high mountains showed firstly an increasing trend, while during 1980 to 2006 it showed an obvious decreasing trend. Reconstructed precipitation change in the Laohugou glacier basin was consistent with the measured data from the nearby weather stations in the lower mountain of Subei, and the correlation coefficient was 0.619 (P<0.001). However, the precipitation in the high mountain was about 3 times more than that of the lower mountain. The precipitation in Laohugou Glacier No.12 of the western Qilian Mountains corresponded well to the net accumulation of Dunde ice core during the same period, tree-ring reconstructed precipitation, the measured data of multiple meteorological stations in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, and also the changes of adjacent PDSI drought index. Precipitation changes of the Laohugou glacier basin and other sites of the northeastern Tibetan Plateau had significantly positive correlation with ENSO, which implied that the regional alpine precipitation change was very likely to be influenced by ENSO.     

Spatial estimation of long-term seasonal and annual groundwater resources: application of WetSpass model in the Werii watershed of the Tekeze River Basin,Ethiopia

Treelines are widely studied worldwide in relation to climate changes because they are hypothesized to be sensitive climate proxies. However, forest treeline expansion toward higher altitudes may be influenced both by a warming climate and by other factors, such as surface morphology and, in the European Alps, the decline in alpine farming. Our results from five valleys in the inner and peripheral regions of the Alps show that present-day treeline altitudes mostly depend on anthropogenic and orographicgeomorphologic factors. Climatic treelines are limited to steep and inaccessible slopes, and occur at higher altitudes and farther from mountain peaks in the inner regions than in the peripheral regions of the mountain range. Looking for sites in which to study treeline responses to climate change, we recommend investigating the inner regions of the Alps where treelines are farther from human disturbances and from geomorphologic constraints, potentially resulting in freer upward shifts under warmer temperature conditions. We also found that, in the valleys selected, human disturbance is mainly concentrated about 165 m below non-climatic treelines, suggesting a homogeneous influence on treelines, regardless of geographic position.     

基于第二次冰川编目数据的中国冰川高度结构特征分析

主要基于第二次中国冰川编目数据,计算和分析中国西部各个山脉冰川面积随高度分布特征、冰川平衡线高度场的分布规律和积累区比率的分布特征。结果表明：① 各个山脉冰川面积随高度分布呈近似正态分布,冰川最大面积所占总面积的百分比与冰川分布高度差的比值可以作为描述冰川面积随高度分布的形状参数;② 平衡线高度的分布特征受气候和地形影响,由南向北逐渐降低,由东向西逐渐升高;西北和南部高大山脉边缘比较密集,青藏高原内部比较稀疏。③ 冰川积累区比率的分布特征与水汽、地形和物理冰川属性有关。各大山脉外侧和海洋型冰川区积累区比率较小（<0.5）,山脉内侧及高原内陆地区和极大陆型冰川区的积累区比率较大（>0.7）。     

中国冻土研究进展

Permafrost in China includes high latitude permafrost in northeastern China, alpine permafrost in northwestern China and high plateau permafrost on the Tibetan Plateau. The high altitude permafrost is about 92% of the total permafrost area in China. The south boundary or lower limit of the seasonally frozen ground is defined in accordance with the 0 ℃ isothermal line of mean air temperature in January, which is roughly corresponding to the line extending from the Qinling Mountains to the Huaihe River in the east and to the southeast boundary of the Tibetan Plateau in the west. Seasonal frozen ground occurs in large parts of the territory in northern China, including Northeast, North, Northwest China and the Tibetan Plateau except for permafrost regions, and accounting for about 55% of the land area of China. The southern limit of short-term frozen ground generally swings south and north along the 25° northern latitude line, occurring in the wet and warm subtropic monsoon climatic zone. Its area is less than 20% of the land area of China.     

中国矮曲林的分布特征及生态意义

矮曲林是山地森林带在严酷的自然环境影响下发展演化而成的特殊植物群落,对中国山地植被和垂直带的研究具有重要的地理和生态意义。本文选择20世纪30年代以来在国内外文献中发表的52个矮曲林数据,结合Worldclim气候数据等,对中国矮曲林的类型和分布及其相应的气候条件进行了研究。结果表明：①中国的矮曲林主要包括山顶苔藓矮曲林、寒温性偃松矮曲林和岳桦矮曲林3类;其中,山顶苔藓矮曲林主要分布于秦巴山区以南的山地,而偃松矮曲林和岳桦矮曲林主要分布于东北地区。②山顶苔藓矮曲林主要由亚热带、热带地区的常绿阔叶林在山顶或山脊受山顶效应等的影响演化而来;而寒温性矮曲林主要由寒温性针叶林或针阔混交林在山顶或山脊条件下长期演化而来。山顶苔藓矮曲林自东向西随地势升高,其分布的海拔高度也逐渐升高;寒温性偃松矮曲林和岳桦矮曲林分布高度自南向北逐渐降低。③矮曲林分布在气候林线以下的山地,其气候条件足以支撑山地森林的发育,但由于山顶效应的存在(如强风、气候干冷或湿冷及土壤贫瘠等),只能发育矮曲林而非垂直地带性的山地森林。④中国东南部的很多山地高度小于3000 m,山顶效应明显,矮曲林广泛发育,造成了假林线的普遍存在。     

Protecting the national parks and the world heritage sites in China: challenge and strategy

To protect the richness, diversity and uniqueness of China's ecosystems and landscapes, more than 150 national parks (named "National scenic and historic interest areas" in China), 85 national geoparks and 230 national nature reserves have been delimited nationwide. In addition, a total of 30 world heritage sites (4 mixed, 4 natural, 22 cultural), 24 biosphere reserves and 8 world geoparks have been ratified for China in a short time by the UNESCO. Unfortunately, most of these national and…