Nocturnal low-level jet over a shallow slope

A simple theory is presented for a nocturnal low-level jet (LLJ) over a planar slope. The theory extends the classical inviscid inertial-oscillation model of LLJs to include up- and downslope motion in the boundary layer within a stably stratified environment. The particular scenario considered is typical of LLJs over the Great Plains of the United States: southerly geostrophic wind over terrain that gently slopes down toward the east. First, an initial value problem for the coupled equations of motion and thermodynamic energy is solved for air parcels suddenly freed of a frictional constraint near sunset. The solution is an oscillation that takes, on the hodograph plane, the form of an ellipse having an eastward-oriented major axis and an eccentricity that increases with increasing stratification and slope angle. Next, the notion of a tilted residual layer (TRL) is introduced and used to relate initial (sunset) air parcel buoyancy to free-atmosphere stratification and thermal structure of the boundary layer. Application of the TRL-estimated initial buoyancy in the solution of the initial value problem leads to expressions for peak jet strength and the slope angle that maximizes the jet strength. Analytical results are in reasonable qualitative agreement with observational data.     

黄土高原复杂地形上边界层低空急流对近地层湍流的影响

利用中尺度气象数值模式（Weather Research and Forecasting Model,WRF）模拟风场,结合兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站（Semi-Arid Climate and Environment Observatory of Lanzhou University,SACOL）湍流观测资料,分析了黄土高原复杂地形上稳定边界层低空急流对近地层湍流活动的影响.黄土高原复杂地形上稳定边界层低空急流的形成与地形作用引发的局地环流有关.低空急流对近地层湍流活动有强烈影响,剪切作用使小尺度湍涡活动加剧,湍动能增大,同时非平稳运动被压制.低空急流发生时,观测数据有87.3%是弱稳定情形（梯度理查森数小于0.25）;而无低空急流时,对应时段的观测表明65.4%属于强稳定层结（梯度理查森数大于0.3）,非平稳运动造成湍流功率谱在低频端迅速增大.与无低空急流和弱低空急流情形相比,强低空急流发生时,近地层湍动能增大1倍,湍动能在垂直方向上的传递增大1个量级,且方向向下,约为-3 × 10^-3 m³·s^-3,湍流在上层产生并向下传递.     

Stable-boundary-layer regimes from the perspective of the low-level jet

This paper reviews results from two field studies of the nocturnal stable atmospheric boundary layer (SBL) over the Great Plains of the United States. Data from a scanning remote-sensing system, a High-Resolution Doppler Lidar (HRDL), provided measurements of mean and turbulent wind components at high spatial and temporal resolution through the lowest 500–1000 m of the atmosphere. This data set has allowed the characteristics of the low-level jet (LLJ) maximum (speed, height, direction) to be documented through entire nights. LLJs form after sunset and produce strong shear in the layer below the LLJ maximum or nose, which is a source of turbulence and mixing in the SBL. Simultaneous HRDL measurements of turbulence quantities related to turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) has allowed the turbulence in the subjet layer to be related to LLJ properties. Turbulence structure was found to be a function of the bulk stability of the subjet layer. For the strong-LLJ (> 15 m s⁻¹), weakly stable cases the strength of the turbulence is proportional to the strength of the LLJ. For these cases with nearly continuous turbulence in the subjet layer, low-level jet scaling, in which lengths are scaled by the LLJ height and velocity variables are scaled by the LLJ speed, was found to be appropriate. For the weak-wind (< 5 m s⁻¹ in the lowest 200 m), very stable boundary layer (vSBL), the boundary layer was found to be very shallow (sometimes < 10 m deep), and turbulent fluxes between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere were found to be essentially shut down. For more intermediate wind speeds and stabilities, the SBL shows varying degrees of intermittency due to various mechanisms, including shearinstability and other gravity waves, density currents, and other mesoscale disturbances.     

北京夏季夜间低空急流特征观测分析

利用三年夏季系留气艇探测结果,分析了北京夏季夜间低空急流的一般特征.30％的夜间观测记录出现了低空急流.急流平均高度为200 m,其最大频率出现在140 m左右,90％急流出现在320 m以下.W、SW、SE是夜间低空急流的主要风向.不同观测地点低空急流在速度、风向和高度上存在明显差异.城区低空急流高度大部分时间比郊区高.个例分析表明,在夜间稳定边界层条件下,低空急流与局地山谷风环流强弱变化有很好相关.进一步成因分析认为,斜坡地形产生的热成风、山谷风环流可能是北京夏季夜间低空急流形成的主要原因.     

A Raman lidar to measure water vapor in the atmospheric boundary layer

A new multi-telescope scanning Raman lidar designed to measure the water vapor mixing ratio in the atmospheric boundary layer for a complete diurnal cycle with high resolution spatial (1.25 m) and temporal (1 s) resolutions is presented. The high resolution allows detailed measurements of the lower atmosphere and offers new opportunities for evaporation and boundary layer research, atmospheric profiling and visualization. This lidar utilizes a multi-telescope design that provides for an operational range with a nearly constant signal-to-noise ratio, which allows for statistical investigations of atmospheric turbulence. This new generation ground-based water vapor Raman lidar is described, and first observations from the Turbulent Atmospheric Boundary Layer Experiment (TABLE) are presented. Direct comparison with in-situ point measurements obtained during the field campaign demonstrate the ability of the lidar to reliably measure the water vapor mixing ratio. Horizontal measurements taken with time are used to determine the geometric characteristics of coherent structures. Vertical scans are used to visualize nocturnal jet features, layered structures within a stably stratified atmosphere and the internal boundary layer structure over a lake.     

The deepening of the wind-Mixed layer

Abstract

A simple model is given that describes the response of the upper ocean to an imposed wind stress. The stress drives both mean and turbulent flow near the surface, which is taken to mix thoroughly a layer of depth h, and to erode the stably stratified fluid below. A marginal stability criterion based on a Froude number is used to close the problem, and it is suggested that the mean momentum has a strong role in the mixing process. The initial deepening is predicted to obey

where u. is the friction velocity of the imposed stress, N the ambient buoyancy frequency, and t the time.

After one-half inertial period the deepening is arrested by rotadeon at a depth h = 2^2/4 u.{(Nf)⁺

where f is the Coriolis frequency. The flow is then a “mixed Ekman” layer, with strong inertial oscillations superimposed on it. Three quarters of the mean energy of the deepening layer is found to be kinetic, and only one-quarter potential.

Heating and cooling are included in the model, but stress dominates for time-scales of a day or less. Non-uniform stratification and currents existing prior to the onset of the wind are easily included.

Agreement between the first formula above and laboratory experiments of Kato and Phillips is very satisfactory; the second formula is consistent with observations of Francis and Stommel, though a more thorough test is needed. Oceanic observations in general support the assumption of slab-like mean profiles and direct response of the fluid to local winds.     

Characteristics of Stable Flows over Southern Greenland

The main characteristic features of stable atmospheric flows over a large mountain plateau are summarised and then compared with mesoscale and synoptic scale numerical simulation, meteorological analysis, satellite imagery, and surface observations for the cases of flows over Southern Greenland for four wind directions. The detailed features are identified using the concepts and scaling of stably stratified flow over large mountains with variations in surface roughness, elevation, and heating. For westerly and easterly winds detached jets form at the southern tip, where coastal jets converge, which propagate large distances across the ocean. Near coasts katabatic winds can combine with barrier jets and wake flows generated by synoptic winds. Note how the approach flow rises/falls over southern Greenland for easterly/westerly winds, leading in both cases to more cloud on the western side. Some conclusions are drawn about the large-scale influences of these flows; detached jets in the atmosphere; air-sea interaction; formation of low pressure systems. For accurate simulations of these flows, mesoscale models are necessary with resolutions of order of 20 km or less.     

Dynamic links between shape of the eddy viscosity profile and the vertical structure of tidal current amplitude in bays and estuaries

Several field studies in bays and estuaries have revealed pronounced subsurface maxima in the vertical profiles of the current amplitude of the principal tidal harmonic, or of its vertical shear, over the water column. To gain fundamental understanding about these phenomena, a semi-analytical model is designed and analysed, with focus on the sensitivity of the vertical structure of the tidal current amplitude to formulations of the vertical shape of the eddy viscosity. The new analytical solutions for the tidal current amplitude are used to explore their dependence on the degree of surface mixing, the vertical shape of eddy viscosity in the upper part of the water column and the density stratification. Sources of surface mixing are wind and whitecapping. Results show three types of current amplitude profiles of tidal harmonics, characterised by monotonically decreasing shear towards the surface, “surface jumps” (vertical shear of tidal current amplitude has a subsurface maximum) and “subsurface jets” (maximum tidal current amplitude below the surface), respectively. The “surface jumps” and “subsurface jets” both occur for low turbulence near the surface, whilst additionally the surface jumps only occur if the eddy viscosity in the upper part of the water column decreases faster than linearly to the surface. Furthermore, “surface jumps” take place for low density stratification, while and “subsurface jets” occur for high density stratification. The physics causing the presence of surface jumps and subsurface jets is also discussed.     

Jet flow over foredunes

Jet flows, which are localized flows exhibiting a high speed maxima, are relatively common in nature, and in many devices. They have only been occasionally observed on dunes, and their dynamics are poorly known. This paper examines computational fluid dynamic (CFD) two‐dimensional (2D) modelling of jet flow over a foredune topography. Flow was simulated in 10° increments from onshore (0°) to highly oblique alongshore (70°) incident wind approach angles. CFD modelling reveals that the formation of a jet is not dependent on a critical wind speed, and an increase in incident wind velocity does not affect the magnitude of jet flow. A jet is first formed at ~1.0 m seawards of the foredune crest on the Prince Edward Island foredune morphology example examined here. A jet is not developed when the incident wind is from an oblique approach angle greater than ~50° because there is significantly less flow acceleration across a much lower slope at this incident angle. The presence of a scarp does influence the structure of the crest jet, in that the jet is more pronounced where a scarp is present. Surface roughness affects the magnitude of jet expansion and jets are better developed on bare surfaces compared to vegetated ones. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Thermal and magnetically driven instabilities in a non-constantly stratified fluid layer

Abstract

The linear hydromagnetic stability of a non-constantly stratified horizontal fluid layer permeated by an azimuthal non-homogeneous magnetic field is investigated for various widths of the stably stratified part of the layer in the geophysical limit q→0 (q is the ratio of thermal and magnetic diffusivities). The choice of the strength of the magnetic field B_o is as in Soward (1979) (see also Soward and Skinner, 1988) and the equations for the disturbances are treated as in Fearn and Proctor (1983). It was found that convection is developed in the whole layer regardless of the width of its stably stratified part. The thermal instability penetrates essentially from the unstably stratified part of the layer into the stably stratified part for A ～ 1 (A characterises the ratio of the Lorentz and Coriolis forces). When the magnetic field is strong (A>1) the thermal convection is suppressed in the stably stratified part of the layer. However, in this case, it is replaced by the magnetically driven instability; which is fully developed in the whole layer. The thermal instabilities always propagate westward and exist for all the modes m. The magnetically driven instabilities propagate either westward or eastward according to the width of the stably and unstably stratified parts and exist only for the mode m=1.     

Early spring turbulent mixing in an ice-covered Arctic fjord during transition to melting

Observations are presented of currents, hydrography and turbulence in a jet-type tidally forced fjord in Svalbard. The fjord was ice covered at the time of the experiment in early spring 2004. Turbulence measurements were conducted by both moored instruments within the uppermost 5 m below the ice and a microstructure profiler covering 3–60 m at 75 m depth. Tidal choking at the mouth of the fjord induces a tidal jet advecting relatively warmer water past the measurement site and dominating the variability in hydrography. While there was no strong correlation with the observed hydrography or mixing and the phase of the semidiurnal tidal cycle, the mean structure in dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy, work done under the ice and the mixing in the water column correlated with the current when conditionally sampled for tidal jet events. Observed levels of dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy per unit mass, 1.1×10⁻⁷ W kg⁻¹, and eddy diffusivity, 7.3×10⁻⁴ m² s⁻¹, were comparable to direct measurements at other coastal sites and shelves with rough topography and strong forcing. During spring tides, an average upward heat flux of 5 W m⁻² in the under-ice boundary layer was observed. Instantaneous (1 h averaged) large heat flux events were correlated with periods of large inflow, hence elevated heat fluxes were associated with the tidal jet and its heat content. Vertical heat fluxes are derived from shear-probe measurements by employing a novel model for eddy diffusivity [Shih et al., 2005. Parameterization of turbulent fluxes and scales using homogeneous sheared stably stratified turbulence simulations. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 525, 193–214]. When compared to the direct heat flux measurements using the eddy correlation method at 5 m below the ice, the upper 4–6 m averaged heat flux estimates from the microstructure profiler agreed with the direct measurements to within 10%. During the experiment water column was stably, but weakly, stratified. Destabilizing buoyancy fluxes recorded close to the ice were absent at 5 m below the ice, and overall, turbulence production was dominated by shear. A scaling for dissipation employing production by both stress and buoyancy [Lombardo and Gregg, 1989. Similarity scaling of viscous and thermal dissipation in a convecting boundary layer. Journal of Geophysical Research 94, 6273–6284] was found to be appropriate for the under-ice boundary layer.     

Interaction between a surface jet and subsurface vortices in a three-layer quasi-geostrophic model

This study focuses on the interaction between mid depth vortices and surface jets and fronts in a three-layer quasi-geostrophic model. Such vortices may be regarded as an idealisation of meddies, eddies of Mediterranean Water in the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean, interacting with the Azores j t and front. Successively, a single vortex, a vortex doublet and a vortex pair (in the middle layer) are studied. When a single vortex is considered, the jet has a critical effect of its motion, temporarily slowing down its zonal drift and accelerating it meridionally as the vortex crosses the front. On the contrary, if the vortex does not cross the front, it can drift fairly rapidly along it. The merger of a vortex doublet (two like-signed vortices) below a surface jet is possible whatever the relative position of this doublet with respect to the jet axis. Nevertheless, doublets initially located below the front, will undergo stronger shear and merger efficiency will be diminished. The merged vortex will be circled at the surface by a large meander of the jet. Finally, eastward jet-dipole interaction experiments are performed with various orientations of the vortex dipoles. Eastward propagating dipoles below the jet follow it without deformation. Southeastward drifting dipoles finally join the previous evolution. Southward and southwestward directed dipoles cross the surface jet southeastward. The presence of meanders initially on the jet does not prevent its crossing by a single vortex. Characteristics of the surface jet meanders are also described for a possible remote detection of this process.     

风垂直切变对大气静力适应过程的影响——第一部分:波动响应

本文基于描述可压缩大气静力适应过程的线性模型,分别采用正交模法和WKBJ法,从波动响应的角度研究了风垂直切变对大气静力适应过程的影响.结合实际天气现象构造了四种风垂直切变模型,分别为垂直无切变的定常模型、类似锋面特征的线性切变模型、表征东风急流的反气旋式切变模型和类似西风急流的气旋式切变模型.分析了相应模型下静力适应过程中的波动特征及波能量演变规律.得到结论:(1)在定常模型中,破坏静力平衡的能量激发出四支两两成对的、传播性质类似声波和重力波的波动,波动能量在闭合系统假设下为守恒量;(2)风切变的存在改变了波动及其能量的传播特征,也改变了波动能量的守恒性;(3)在大气稳定层结下,若波动多普勒频率大于0且小于0.7倍的浮力振荡频率,则发展(衰亡)型波动的螺旋结构分别为:(a)在线性切变模型中,等相位线自下而上需向西(东)倾斜;(b)在反气旋式切变模型中,等相位线在急流轴上层自下而上需向西(东)倾斜,在急流轴下层自下而上需向东(西)倾斜;(c)在气旋式切变模型中,等相位线在急流轴上层自下而上需向东(西)倾斜,在急流轴下层自下而上需向西(东)倾斜;若波动多普勒频率大于0.7倍的浮力振荡频率,则情形相反.     

基于COSMIC卫星观测数据的平流层重力波的全球分布特征研究

本文利用2007年1月至2012年12月的COSMIC卫星温度剖线,从中提取了垂直波长在3~10 km的重力波扰动信息,进而分析了全球平流层大气重力波的分布特征.赤道地区低平流层重力波表现出明显的准两年变化,这种变化与风场的准两年变化具有明显的相关性,向下发展速度约为1 km/月;赤道地区高平流层(35 km以上区域)的重力波活动则存在明显的半年变化.中高纬度重力波活动主要表现为冬季强夏季弱.在南极地区存在着与急流的时间、空间以及强度变化密切相关的重力波分布特征,这说明在南极极夜急流是非常重要的一个重力波源;而在北极极夜急流的作用则没有那么强.此外,通过考察不同高度的重力波活动特征,我们发现:30 km以下重力波活动较强区域主要在赤道地区且与强对流区分布基本吻合,地形诱发的以及与天气系统相关的强重力波活动在该高度范围内同样出现;而在30 km以上的区域重力波活动强度分布则会出现与平流层爆发性增温以及极夜急流有关的变化.     

新墨西哥州SOR中间层钠层结构的季节和夜间变化

利用1998年1月至2000年5月美国新墨西哥州Starfire Optic Range (SOR：35°N,106.5°W)钠风场、温度激光雷达共46个观测夜的数据，分析大气中间层钠层结构的季节变化特征. 结果表明，钠层丰度变化显示出很强的年振荡现象，其平均值为5.06×109cm-2，最大值出现在11月份，最小值出现在6月和7月份. 钠层均方根宽度的平均值为4.30km，中心高度的平均值为91.60km. 均方根宽度和中心高度变化显示出较明显的半年振荡特征. 年平均钠层夜间变化显示出潮汐的影响，丰度夜间变化在午夜前最小，日出前达到最大. 白天光离化作用和夜间复合过程，与潮汐动力学一起，导致钠层丰度发生较大的夜间变化.     

Vertical structure of the stable boundary layer detected by RASS-SODAR and in-situ measurements in SABLES 2006 field campaign

Data from the SABLES 2006 field campaign are used in order to analyse some of the main processes present along the nocturnal periods: surface-based inversions, low level jets, katabatic winds, wave-like motions, pressure perturbations, etc. These processes have an important influence on the vertical structure (both thermal and dynamical) of the atmospheric boundary layer, and can be better described with the synergetic combination of RASS-SODAR data and in-situ measurements (such as sonic anemometer data and high-resolution pressure series from microbarometers). It is shown how the different air masses and their evolution are easily identified when pressure and RASS-SODAR wind and temperature data are presented together. Likewise, periodic pressure fluctuations observed in the surface array of microbarometers reveal the existence of gravity wave motions whose propagation is better understood after locating the wave ducting layers with the help of RASS-SODAR average wind ant temperature profiles.     

Lagrangian approach to geostrophic adjustment of frontal anomalies in a stratified fluid

Geostrophic adjustment of frontal anomalies in a rotating continuously stratified fluid is studied in the standard framework of strictly rectilinear fronts and jets. Lagrangian approach to this problem is developed allowing to analyze, in a conceptually and technically simple way, both major problems of the nonlinear adjustment: the existence of a smooth adjusted state for a given set of initial conditions and the attainability of the adjusted state during the adjustment process. Dynamical splitting into balanced (adjusted state) and unbalanced (inertia-gravity waves) motions becomes transparent in the Lagrangian approach. Conditions of existence of the balanced state in the unbounded domain are established. It is shown that nonexistence of a smooth adjusted state in the vertically bounded domains is generic and a parallel with the classical scenario of deformation frontogenesis is developed. Small perturbations around smooth adjusted states are then studied with special emphasis on the wave-trapping inside the jet/front. Trapped modes with horizontal scales comparable to the width of the jet are explicitly constructed for a barotropic jet and their evolution is studied with the help of the WKB-approximation for weakly baroclinic jets. Modifications of the standard scenario of adjustment due to subinertial (quasi-) trapped modes and implications for data analysis are discussed.     

On hydromagnetic instabilities and the mean electromotive force in a non-uniformly stratified Earth’s core affected by viscosity

Linear magnetoconvection in a model of a non-uniformly stratified horizontal rotating fluid layer with a toroidal magnetic field is investigated for no-slip and finitely electrically conductive boundaries and with very thin stably stratified upper sublayer. The basic parabolic temperature profile is determined by the temperature difference between the boundaries and by the homogeneous heat source distribution in the layer. This results in a density pattern, in which a stably stratified upper sublayer is present. The developed diffusive perturbations (modes) are strongly affected by the complicated coupling of viscous, thermal and magnetic diffusive processes. The calculations were performed for various values of Roberts number (q ≪ 1 and q = O(1)). The mean electromotive force produced by the developed hydromagnetic instabilities is investigated to find the modes, which can be appropriate for creating the α-effect. It was found that the azimuthal part of the EMF is dominant for westward modes when the Elsasser number Λ ≲ O(1).     

Jet instability and the stabilizing effect of topography on jets in two-layer rotating systems

Abstract

Laboratory experiments concerning azimuthal jets in two-layer rotating systems in the absence and presence of bottom topography aligned along the jets have been conducted. The jets were forced by the selective withdrawal of fluid from the upper layer of a two-fluid system contained in a circular dishpan geometry. The principal parameters measured in the experiments were the jet Rossby number, Ro, and a stratification parameter F = r ₁/(λ₁λ₂)^1/2 where r ₁ is the radius of the circular disc used for the selective withdrawal (i.e., r ₁ is the approximate radius of curvature of the jet) and λ₁,λ₂ are the internal Rossby radii of deformation in the upper and lower fluids, respectively.

The no-topography experiments show that for a sufficiently small F, the particular value depending on Ro, the jet is stable for the duration of the experiment. For sufficiently large F, again as a function of Ro, the jet becomes unstable, exhibiting horizontal wave disturbances from modes three to seven. An Ro against F flow regime diagram is presented.

Experiments are then conducted in the presence of a bottom topography having constant cross-section and extending around a mid-radius of the dishpan. The axis of the topography is in the vicinity of the jet axis forced in the no-topography experiments and the crest of the topography is in the vicinity of the interface between the two fluids (i.e., the front associated with the jet). The experiments show that in all cases investigated the jet tends to be stabilized by the bottom topography. Experiments with the topography in place, but with the interface between the fluids being above the topography crest, are shown to be unstable but more irregular than their no-topography counterparts.

Various quantitative measurements of the jet are presented. It is shown, for example, that the jet Rossby number defined in terms of the fluid withdrawal rate from the tank. Q, can be well correlated with a dimensionless vorticity gradient, V_G , across the upper layer jet. This allows for an assessment of the stability characteristics of a jet based on a knowledge of V_G (which can be estimated given a jet profile) and F.     

Characteristics of inertia-gravity waves around jet stream from radiosonde observations in Wuhan (30.5°N, 114.4°E)

The 5 years’ radiosonde data obtained from January 2000 to December 2004 in Wuhan (30.5°N, 114.4°E) have been used for studying the behaviors of inertia-gravity waves in the vicinity of the jet stream. It is observed that the wave intensity has a similar seasonal variation with the jet stream intensity with a strong winter maximum and a summer minimum. Moreover, a similar inter-annual trend for both the wave intensity and jet stream intensity is also found. These results suggest that the jet stream may be the predominant source of the inertia-gravity waves in the troposphere and lower stratosphere over Wuhan in the period of the 5 years. It is noticed from 28 radiosonde profiles during wintertime that the energy of inertia-gravity waves exhibits upward and downward propagation respectively above and below the jet stream. This indicates that the source of the inertia-gravity waves is within the jet stream. In these cases, the twin waves below and above the jet stream usually hold similar amplitudes. The horizontal propagation of the twin waves also shows some interesting relationship.